UC-NI 


SB    27h    M3D 


LIBRARY 

OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 

Class 


KING'S  SERIES  IN   WOODWORK   AND  CARPENTRY 


ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 


BY 
CHARLES  A.   KING 

DIKECrOR    OF    MANUAL   TRAINING 
EASTERN    HIGH    SCHOOL,   BAY   CITY,   MICHIGAN 


NEW   YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


KING'S  SERIES  IN  WOODWORK  AND  CARPENTRY 


ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 
ELEMENTS    OF    CONSTRUCTION 
CONSTRUCTIVE   CARPENTRY 
INSIDE   FINISHING 
HANDBOOK  FOR  TEACHERS 


OCi 


COPYRIGHT,  1911,  BY 
CHARLES   A.   KING. 

ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL,  LONDON. 
W.P.I 


PREFACE   TO   THE   SERIES 

THIS  series  consists  of  five  volumes,  four  of  which  are  intended 
as  textbooks  for  pupils  in  manual-training,  industrial,  trade,  tech- 
nical, or  normal  schools.  The  fifth  book  of  the  series,  the  "  Hand- 
book in  Woodwork  and  Carpentry,"  is  for  the  use  of  teachers  and 
of  normal  students  who  expect  to  teach  the  subjects  treated  in  the 
other  four  volumes. 

Of  the  pupils'  volumes,  the  first  two,  "  Elements  of  Woodwork  " 
and  "Elements  of  Construction,'7  are  adapted  to  the  needs  of  stu- 
dents in  manual-training  schools,  or  in  any  institution  in  which 
elementary  woodwork  is  taught,  whether  as  purely  educational 
handwork,  or  as  preparatory  to  a  high,  or  trade,  school  course  in 
carpentry  or  vocational  training. 

The  volumes  "  Constructive  Carpentry "  and  "  Inside  Finish- 
ing" are  planned  with  special  reference  to  the  students  of  tech- 
nical, industrial,  or  trade  schools,  who  have  passed  through  the 
work  of  the  first  two  volumes,  or  their  equivalent.  The  subjects 
treated  are  those  which  will  be  of  greatest  value  to  both  the  pro- 
spective and  the  finished  workman. 

For  the  many  teachers  who  are  obliged  to  follow  a  required 
course,  but  who  are  allowed  to  introduce  supplementary  or 
optional  models  under  certain  conditions,  and  for  others  who 
have  more  liberty  and  are  able  to  make  such  changes  as  they 
see  fit,  this  series  will  be  found  perfectly  adaptable,  regardless 
of  the  grades  taught.  To  accomplish  this,  the  material  has  been 
arranged  by  topics,  which  may  be  used  by  the  teacher  irrespective 
of  the  sequence,  as  each  topic  has  to  the  greatest  extent  possible 
been  treated  independently. 

iii 

223752 


iv  PREFACE  TO   THE  SERIES 

The  author  is  indebted  to  Dr.  George  A.  Hubbell,  Ph.D.,  now 
President  of  the  Lincoln  Memorial  University,  for  encouragement 
and  advice  in  preparing  for  and  planning  the  series,  and  to 
George  R.  Swain,  Principal  of  the  Eastern  High  School  of  Bay 
City,  Michigan,  for  valuable  aid  in  revising  the  manuscript. 

Acknowledgment  is  due  various  educational  and  trade  periodi- 
cals, and  the  publications  of  the  United  States  Departments  of 
Education  and  of  Forestry,  for  the  helpful  suggestions  that  the 
author  has  gleaned  from  their  pages. 

CHARLES  A.    KING. 

BAY  CITY,  MICHIGAN. 


PREFACE  TO  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

IN  preparing  this  book,  it  has  been  the  author's  purpose  to 
present,  in  as  complete  and  concise  form  as  possible,  the  knowl- 
edge which  every  wood-worker  should  possess  regarding  the  care 
and  use  of  his  tools  and  the  material  upon  which  he  employs 
them. 

Whether  an  amateur,  apprentice,  or  skilled  workman,  whether 
a  carpenter,  boat  builder,  pattern  maker,  or  wood  carver,  the  ele- 
mentary knowledge  of  the  construction  of  tools,  of  sharpening 
them,  and  of  their  adjustment  and  manipulation  is  practically  the 
same.  The  structure  of  wood,  and  the  necessity  of  applying  its 
peculiarities  of  grain  and  texture  to  the  advantage  of  the  work  in 
hand,  also  is  the  same  upon  all  branches  of  woodwork. 

While  innumerable  tools  and  cutting  devices  have  been  invented 
to  enable  the  wood-worker  to  accomplish  special  results  economi- 
cally both  as  to  time  and  material,  a  study  of  them  will  prove 
that  they  all  operate  upon  a  few  simple  principles,  a  knowledge 
of  which  is  not  difficult  to  acquire,  though  skill  and  judgment  in 
the  application  of  the  tools  can  be  attained  only  by  continuous 
and  properly  directed  practice. 

It  would  be  both  impossible  and  unnecessary  in  a  book  of  this 
sort  to  describe  these  various  devices,  though  in  a  schoolroom  it 
is  a  great  advantage  to  have  as  many  of  them  as  practicable,  not 
for  their  use  only,  but  that  the  students  may  become  familiar 
with  their  purposes  and  the  applications  of  the  fundamental  prin- 
ciples upon  which  each  is  based. 

The  actual  use  of  tools  may  be  considered  the  ABC  of  wood- 
work, as  it  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  finished  product  of  the 
workman  as  the  alphabet  bears  to  literature,  the  space  between 


vi  PREFACE   TO    ELEMENTS   OF    WOODWORK 

the  mere  mechanical  facility  in  the  use  of  either  tools  or  alpha- 
bet, being  the  result  of  the  judgment,  skill,  and  individuality  of 
either  the  workman  or  the  author. 

Thus,  if  a  student  acquires  the  facility  to  use  the  tools  described 
in  this  volume,  he  will  have  little  difficulty  in  using  other  and 
more  complex  tools ;  and  when  he  has  mastered  the  principles 
of  construction  involved  in  the  exercises  explained  in  the  follow- 
ing book  of  this  series,  the  "  Elements  of  Construction,"  and  the 
correct  use  of  the  tools  involved  in  making  these,  together  with 
their  applications  and  combinations,  he  has  acquired  the  funda- 
mental knowledge  of  all  construction  in  wood. 

CHARLES   A.    KING. 
BAY  CITY,  MICHIGAN. 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS 

PAGB 

CHAPTER  I.  GROWTH  OF  WOOD.  —  Kinds  of  trees  used  for  lumber; 
The  formation  of  wood  ;  Tissues  ;  The  medullary  rays  ;  The  grain 
in  trees  ;  Defects  found  in  lumber  ;  When  to  cut  lumber  .  .  1 

CHAPTER  II.  LUMBERING  AND  VARIETIES  OF  WOOD.  —  The  manu- 
facture of  lumber  ;  To  saw  lumber  of  irregular  dimensions  ;  The 
grading  of  lumber ;  The  testing  of  lumber  ;  Surveying  or  estimat- 
ing lumber  ;  Qualities  of  wood 12 

CHAPTER  III.  CARE  OF  LUMBER. — The  piling  of  lumber;  Permanent 
lumber  ways  ;  To  minimize  the  warping  of  lumber  ;  Weather-dried 
lumber  ;  Kiln-dried  lumber  ;  Moist  air  kilns  ;  Induced  draft  kilns  ; 
Results  of  the  two  systems ;  Filling  a  kiln  ;  Length  of  time  lum- 
ber should  be  left  in  the  kiln  ;  The  care  of  kiln-dried  lumber ; 
Steaming  wood ;  Preserving  wood  ...  .  .  .45 

CHAPTER  IV.  TOOLS.  —  How  to  purchase  tools ;  Benches  ;  Rules ; 
The  try-square ;  The  steel,  or  framing,  square ;  The  bevel ;  The 
gauge  ;  The  hammer ;  The  hatchet ;  The  mallet ;  Saws  ;  The  knife 
blade  ;  Planes  ;  Sharpening  a  plane  ;  The  jack  plane  ;  The  jointer ; 
The  smoothing  plane;  The  block  plane;  The  correct  position; 
Chisels ;  Gouges ;  The  drawshave ;  The  spokeshave  ;  Bits  ;  The 
bitbrace,  or  stock;  The  screwdriver;  Compasses,  or  dividers ;  Pliers; 
The  scraper  ;  Edges  ;  Nail  sets  ;  Wrenches  ;  Handscrews  ;  A  grind- 
stone ;  Emery,  corundum,  carborundum ;  Whetstones ;  Files ; 
Saw  filing 57 

CHAPTER  V.     GLUE  AND  SANDPAPER. — Different  kinds  of  glue  ;   How 

to  use  glue  ;  The  testing  of  sandpaper  ;  How  to  use  sandpaper        .     118 

CHAPTER  VI.     WOOD  FINISHING. — Filling;   Staining  wood  ;    Shellac; 

Wax  finishing ;  Oil  finish  ;  Varnish  ;  Polishing ;  Brushes        .         .     128 


vii 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGK 

1.  Section  of  Yellow  Pine .         .        2 

2.  Section  of  Oak  Tree  Trunk 5 

3.  Defects  in  Lumber   ..........         7 

4.  Felling  a  Tree 12 

5.  Cutting  Small  Branches  from  Felled  Spruce 13 

6.  Skidway  of  Spruce  Logs 14 

7.  Load  of  White  Pine  Logs 14 

8.  Hauling  Logs  by  Steel  Cable 15 

9.  Loading  Logs  from  Shedway  to  Train      .         .         .        .  16 

10.  Boom  of  Logs 16 

11.  Logjam 17 

12.  Sawmill  in  the  Big  Tree  District 18 

13.  Circular  Saw .       20 

14.  Double  Cut  Band  Saw .21 

15.  Plain,  Slash,  or  Bastard  Sawing 22 

16.  Four  Methods  of  Quartering 22 

17.  Lumber  Scale 27 

18.  Beech  and  Sugar  Maple  Forest          .        .         .        .         .         .         .31 

19.  White  Pine  Forest 39 

20.  Douglas  Spruce  Forest 41 

21.  Red  Spruce  and  Balsam  Fir  Killed  by  Fire      .        .    •     .         .         .43 

22.  Permanent  Lumber  Ways         ........       46 

23.  Warping  of  Lumber .        .         .        .48 

24.  Lumber  piled  in  Double  Courses 49 

25.  Manual-training  Bench     .........       58 

26.  Carpenter's  Bench 58 

27.  Two-foot,  Four-fold  Rule .         .59 

28.  Zigzag  Rule 59 

29.  Position  of  Try-square  in  Squaring  an  Edge     .         .        .        .         .CO 

30.  Use  of  Two  Try-squares  to  see  if  Piece  of  Wood  is  "  Out  of  Wind  "       60 

31.  Position  of  Try-square  when  Making  Line        .         .         .         .         .61 

32.  Steel,  or  Framing,  Square         ...         .         .        .        .        .        .62 

viii 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS  ix 

KIG.  PAGE 

33.  Bevel  and  Steel  Square     .         .        „         .         ..        ..."        .62 

34.  Marking  Gauge          .         .         .         .         .         .        .         .        .        .03 

35.  Marking  Gauge  in  Use 64 

36.  Claw  Hammer 64 

37.  Toenailing  and  Tacking    .         .         . 65 

38.  Blind  Nailing  and  Use  of  a  Kail  Set .        .        .         .         .        .         .66 

39.  Hatchet  and  Handaxe    ' 67 

40.  Mallets  (Square-faced  and  Round)  .......      67 

41.  Saws  —  Rip-,  Cutting-off,  and  Compass,  or  Keyhole         ...       68 

42.  Backsaw 69 

43.  Use  of  the  Saw .    *   .        .         .       71 

44.  Reset  Saw  Handle .         .        .         .72 

45.  Knife  Blades 72 

46.  Section  of  an  Iron  Plane  .         .         .         .        .        .         ...       73 

47.  Result  of  Using  Plane  with  Improperly  Adjusted  Cap  Iron      .         .       74 

48.  Result  of  Using  Plane  with  Cap  Iron  Adjusted  Properly  .        .         .       74 

49.  Setting  a  Plane .76 

50.  Whetting  and  Grinding  of  Plane      .         .        .  v.         .        .         .       77 

51.  Whetting  or  Oilstoning  the  Beveled  Side  of  a  Cutter        .      *  ,         .       78 

52.  Whetting  or  Oilstoning  the  Plain  Side  of  the  Plane  Iron  ...       79 

53.  Shape  of  Edge  of  Plane  Iron     .         .        .        M      .  .        .        .         .       80 

54.  Jack  Plane        .        .        .>.     .        ...        .        .        ...        .81 

55.  Method  of  Guiding  a  Jointer     .  .        .        .         .        .         .83 

56.  Knuckle  Joint  Block  Plane       .        .         .         ...         ...         .84 

57.  Use  of  the  Block  Plane     .       V       .         .         .        .         ,        .         .       84 

58.  Using  Block  Plane  upon  Small  Pieces       .         .  .        .         .85 

59.  Incorrect  Use  of  Jack  Plane      .        .         .         .         .        .         .         .       86 

60.  Beginning  the  Stroke  with  a  Jack  Plane 87 

61.  Ending  the  Stroke  with  a  Jack  Plane 87 

62.  Chisels 89 

63.  Drawshave 90 

64.  Spokeshave        ...........       90 

65.  Auger  Bit 91 

66.  Cross-handled  Auger .91 

67.  German  Bit  and  Twist  Drill 92 

68.  Extension  Bit  and  Center  Bit 92 

69.  Filing  an  Auger  Bit .         .        .93 

70.  Ratchet  Bitbrace       .        .         . 94 

71.  Compasses         .         .        .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .         .95 

72.  Calipers 95 


x  LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIG.  PAGE 

73.  Pliers 95 

74.  Nippers 95 

75.  Scraper 96 

76.  Edges  of  Scrapers 97 

77.  Angle  of  Burnisher  with  Sides  of  Scraper         .  .         .         .97 

78.  Method  of  Grasping  Scraper  for  Sharpening 98 

79.  Top  Views  of  the  Angles  of  the  Burnisher 99 

80.  Angle  to  be  avoided  in  Sharpening  Scraper 100 

81.  Turning  back  the  Edge  of  a  Scraper 100 

82.  Method  of  Grasping  the  Scraper  when  Working  upon  a  Broad  Sur- 

face   .         .         . 101 

83.  Method  of  Grasping  the  Scraper  when  Working  within  Small  Area  101 

84.  Method  of  Grasping  the  Scraper  when  Working  upon  an  Edge         .  102 

85.  Monkey  Wrench       . '   .        .         .103 

86.  Effect  of  the  Unskillful  Use  of  a  Hanclscrew 103 

87.  Correct  Use  of  Handscrew 104 

88.  Emery  Wheel  Dresser 106 

89.  Jointing  a  Saw 109 

90.  Hand  Saw  Set 110 

91.  Anvil  Saw  Set 110 

92.  Angle  of  the  File  with  the  Edge  of  the  Saw Ill 

93.  Angle  of  the  File  with  the  Sides  of  the  Saw Ill 

94.  Eesults  of  Filings  as  shown  in  Fig.  93 112 

95.  Method  of  Carrying  a  File  to  obtain  the  Hook  of  a  Cutting-off  Saw  112 

96.  Removing  the  Burr  after  Filing  a  Saw      ......  113 

97.  Use  of  Sandpaper  upon  a  Broad  Surface  ......  124 

98.  Sandpapering  Panel  Work 126 

99.  Method  of  Grasping  Sandpaper  in  Rubbing  down  Shellac  Finish     .  134 


y&iv,  OF 

,»  j  » - 


ELEMENTS    OF   WOODWORK 

CHAPTER    I 
GROWTH  OF  WOOD 

i.  Kinds  of  trees  used  for  lumber.  —  (A.)  The  classifi- 
cation of  trees  here  considered  is  based  upon  the  method  by 
which  the  trunk,  or  stem,  of  a  tree  is  formed.  The  term 
exogenous  is  applied  to  outside  growers,  around  which  a 
layer  of  wood  grows  each  year,  and  from  which  is  cut  the 
lumber  of  commerce.  As  the  wood-worker  is  interested 
mainly  in  trees  which  grow  by  this  method,  we  will  do  no 
more  than  mention  the  endogenous,  or  inside-growing,  trees 
or  plants  of  the  nature  of  palm  trees,  cornstalks,  etc.,  in 
which  the  woody  fiber  is  formed  upon  the  inside  of  the 
stem. 

(B.)  The  new  wood  formed  each  year  upon  exogenous 
trees  is  known  as  the  annual  layer,  or  ring;  the  separate 
layers  being  more  prominent  in  open-grained  woods,  such 
as  oak,  ash,  and  chestnut,  than  in  close-grained  woods, 
such  as  maple,  cherry,  poplar,  and  birch.  It  is  the  dif- 
ference in  the  character  and  structure  of  these  layers 
which  makes  some  woods  hard  and  others  soft,  some 
with  open  and  others  with  close  grain,  and  which  also, 
with  the  coloring  matter  peculiar  to  each  kind  of  wood, 
causes  its  individuality  and  adaptability  to  certain  uses. 
KING'S  WOODWORK  —  1  1 


;    ELEMENTS.  OF  WOODWORK 


(The  color  &nd  Qdor  af  wood  are  caused  by  chemical  com- 
binations, and  are  not  part  of  the  substance  of  the  wood.) 
Each  of  these  annual  layers  is  composed  of  two  parts, 
the  formation  being  shown  In  Fig.  1,  in  which  the  grain  of 
yellow  pine  is  depictecl.    The  soft,  cellular,  or  open,  grain, 

a,  is  formed  as  the  sap  moves 
upward  in  the  spring,  and  the 
hard,  compact  grain,  b,  is 
formed  later  in  the  year.  In 
soft  woods  the  open  grain 
predominates,  while  in  hard 
woods  the  compact  grain  is 
more  in  evidence. 

The  age  of  a  tree  may  be 
determined  by  counting  these 
annual  rings  upon  the  stump, 
though  a  drouth  during  the 
growing  season  may  have  at 
some  time  so  affected  its 
growth  as  to  make  some  layers 
indistinct,  rendering  it  impos- 
sible to  be  absolutely  sure  of  the  count.  In  a  young  tree 
the  annual  layers  are  thicker  than  when  the  tree  becomes 
more  mature. 

(C.)  The  different  kinds  of  timber  which  the  carpenter 
uses  are  cut  from  deciduous,  or  broad-leaf,  trees,  and  from 
coniferous,  or  needle-leaf,  trees.  This  classification  of  trees 
is  based  upon  the  difference  in  the  forms  of  their  leaves, 
the  former  kind  furnishing  the  ash,  oak,  walnut,  beech, 
birch,  and  other  woods  that  are  hard  to  work,  as  well  as 
poplar  or  white  wood,  linn  or  bass  wood,  and  others  which 


FIG.    1.  —  SECTION    OP 
PINE. 


YELLOW 


a,  soft,  cellular  grain ;  6,  hard,  compact 
grain. 


GROWTH  OF  WOOD  3 

are  called  hard  woods,  not  in  the  sense  that  they  are  hard 
to  work,  but  because  their  method  of  growth  is  the  same. 

The  coniferous  or  evergreen  trees  furnish  the  cedars, 
pines,  hemlocks,  spruces,  firs,  redwood,  tamarack,  cy- 
press, and  a  few  other  woods  of  the  same  nature.  These 
woods  have  a  resin  which  is  always  present,  no  matter 
how  old  or  dry  the  wood  may  be,  which  explains  their 
superior  weather-resisting  qualities. 

2.  The  formation  of  wood.  —  (A.)  In  the  spring  the  sap 
begins  to  flow  upward,  mainly  through  the  open  cells  of 
the  cambium  (the  new  growth  in  the  stem,  by  which  the 
diameter  of  the  tree  is  increased),  and  to  some  extent 
through  the  sapwood.  As  it  comes  in  contact  with  the 
air  by  means  of  the  leaves  and  the  green  shoots  of  the 
tree,  (B.)  it  gives  off  water  and  oxygen,  and  absorbs 
carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  air,  (C.)  which  is  formed  into 
starch,  sugar,  oil,  etc.;  this  in  turn  becomes  part  of  the 
sapwood,  and  forms  the  compact  part  of  the  annual  ring, 
completing  the  layer  for  that  year. 

(D.)  The  wood  is  formed  by  a  deposit  of  matter  from  the 
sap,  which  gradually  thickens  the  cell  walls  until  the  cells 
are  filled,  when  that  layer  becomes  a  part  of  the  heart- 
wood,  or  that  part  of  the  tree  which  is  inclosed  within  the 
annual  layers  of  sapwood. 

(E.)  Both  the  fibers  and  the  cells  of  the  sapwood  are 
filled  with  water  or  sap,  which  may  be  removed  by  season- 
ing, but  the  sapwood  of  most  trees  used  for  building  pur- 
poses is  not  as  good  lumber  as  the  heart  wood,  as  it  is 
always  susceptible  to  moisture.  The  exceptions  to  this 
will  be  mentioned  elsewhere. 

(F.)    In  all  unseasoned  lumber  from  20  to  60  per  cent  of 


4  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

its  weight  is  moisture,  which  must  be  evaporated  before 
the  lumber  has  its  highest  commercial  value.  This  may 
be  done  by  weather  drying  or  by  artificial  means,  the  lum- 
ber being  treated  in  a  specially  constructed  kiln. 

3.  Tissues.  —  (A.)  A  tree  trunk  is  composed  o£  four 
different  tissues,  viz. : 

1.  The  pith  (Fig.  2,  a),  a  cellular  tissue:  this  is  worth- 
less and  its  presence  in  lumber  is  considered  a  defect. 

2.  The  wood,  which  includes  the  heartwood   (6),  the 
sapwood  (c),  and  the  medullary  rays  (g).     From  this  part 
of  the  tree  the  commercially  valuable  lumber  is  taken. 

3.  The  cambium  (d),  which  is  a  thin  layer  between  the 
sapwood  (c)  and  the  bast  (e). 

4.  The  bark,  which    includes  both   the   bast  (e)   and 
the  outer  bark  (/) .     The  bark  of  most  trees  is  worthless, 
but  that  of  chestnut,  oak,  hemlock,  and  other  trees  which 
are  rich  in  tannic  acid  is  used  in  large  quantities  by 
tanneries. 

(B.)  The  heartwood  (b),  or  duramen,  of  most  trees  is 
the  part  generally  used  by  carpenters  upon  the  best  work. 
It  is  firm,  compact,  and  of  the  color  and  qualities  charac- 
teristic of  the  wood. 

(C.)  The  sapwood  (c),  or  alburnum,  is  generally  light- 
colored,  and  in  most  building  woods  its  presence  is  con- 
sidered a  defect,  though  not  in  hickory,  ash,  maple,  or 
yellow  pine,  and  a  few  other  woods  ;  in  fact,  in  these  woods 
it  is  often  preferred  to  the  heartwood  for  many  kinds  of 
work  on  account  of  its  color.  The  alburnum  is  filled 
with  the  active  elements  of  the  sap,  which  are  deposited 
as  the  sap  passes  through  the  trees,  and  in  time  becomes 
part  of  the  duramen,  or  heartwood.  The  time  required 


GROWTH  OF  WOOD 


FIQ.  2.  —  SECTION  OF  OAK  TREE  TRUNK. 

a,  pith;  6,  heartwood,  or  duramen;  c,  sapwood,  or  alburnum;  d,  cambium;  e,  bast,  or 
inner  bark;  /,  outer  bark,  or  corky  layer;  g,  medullary  rays,  or  silver  grain;  po,  plain  oak; 
qo,  quartered  oak. 


6  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

for  sapwood  to  attain  maturity  ranges  from  thirty  to  one 
hundred  years,  according  to  its  kind  and  age. 

(D.)  Outside  of  the  sapwood  (Fig.  2,  c)  is  the  cam- 
bium (d),  which  furnishes  the  substance  upon  which  the 
life  of  the  tree  depends.  Here,  nourished  by  the  richest 
sap,  new  cells  are  formed,  which  become  either  sapwood 
or  a  part  of  the  bast.  (E.)  At  (e)  is  shown  the  bast  or 
inner  bark,  which  is  composed  of  a  woody  fiber  combined 
with  a  tissue  of  cells.  This  is  elastic,  which  allows  it  to 
expand  as  the  wood  grows  beneath  it.  Outside  of  the 
bast  is  the  bark  (/),  or  outer  covering,  which  is  of  a  corky 
nature,  and  protects  the  delicate  vital  parts  of  the  tree. 

4.  The  medullary  rays.  —  Every   tree  has  medullary 
rays  (Fig.  2,  g],  usually  spoken  of  by  wood-workers  as 
the  "  silver  streak,"  or  "  silver  grain."     These  rays  con- 
nect  the  center  of  the  tree  with  the  outside,  and  are 
more  prominent  in  such  woods  as  oak,  beech,  and  syca- 
more than  in  other  woods      It  is  to  take  advantage  of 
the  beauty  which  these  medullary  rays  impart  that  so 
much  quarter-sawed  lumber  is  used,  though  lumber  sawed 
in  this  way  is  preferred  for  other  reasons,  which  will  be 
discussed  later. 

In  many  woods  these  rays  are  so  small  as  to  be  invisible 
to  the  naked  eye,  as  in  pine,  for  instance,  which  has  fifteen 
thousand  to  the  square  inch.  Aside  from  adding  much  to 
the  beauty  of  the  lumber,  they  also  give  strength ;  if 
lumber  is  dried  out  too  rapidly  by  artificial  heat,  it  is 
apt  to  check,  or  crack,  upon  the  line  of  the  medullary 
rays. 

5.  The  grain  in  trees.  —  In  open  or  exposed  situations 
trees  usually  grow  more  or  less  gnarled  or  crooked,  which 


GROWTH   OF  WOOD  7 

tends   to   improve   the   grain.     The   strength  of  lumber 
cut  from  trees  grown  as  described  is  impaired,  however, 


FIG.  3.  —  DEFECTS  IN  LUMBER. 

a,  wind  shakes  or  cup  shakes:  b,  heart  shakes;  c,  star  shakes;  d,  branch  broken  off,  showing 
the  method  by  which  the  annual  layers  gradually  cover  broken  branches;  e,  hard  knot. 

as  the  wood  is  more  cross-grained  than  that  from  trees 
which  grow  in  the  heart  of  a  forest,  with  practically  the 
same  conditions  on  all  sides.  As  forest  trees  are  con- 
tinually reaching  up  for  the  sunlight,  they  grow  taller  and 


8  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

straighter,  which  makes  it  possible  for  straighter-grained 
lumber  to  be  cut  from  them,  and  as  the  branches  are  at 
the  top,  where  they  receive  the  sunlight  and  air,  there  are 
few  cross-grained  places. 

When  the  annual  rings  are  large,  the  grain  is  said  to  be 
coarse,  and  if  the  rings  are  fine,  the  term  fine-grained  is 
used  to  describe  it.  When  the  direction  of  the  fibers  is 
nearly  parallel  with  the  sides  and  the  edges  of  the  board, 
it  is  said  to  be  straight-grained;  when  the  lumber  is  taken 
from  a  crooked  tree,  it  is  said  to  be  cross-grained,  as  the 
grain  follows  the  shape  of  the  log,  while  the  board  is  sawed 
straight.  Cross-grained  lumber  is  the  handsomer ;  in  this 
the  fibers,  being  at  different  angles  with  the  surface  of 
the  board,  form  a  variety  of  figures,  which  add  much  to  the 
beauty  of  the  wood. 

6.  Defects  found  in  lumber.  —  (A.)  Some  of  the  most 
common  defects  found  in  lumber  are  wind  shakes,  or  cup 
shakes  (Fig.  3,  a),  which  are  cracks  following  the  line  of 
the  porous  part  of  the  annual  rings.  These  are  caused 
by  the  action  of  severe  winds.  (B.)  Heart  shakes  (Fig. 
3,  6)  are  cracks  radiating  from  the  center  of  the  tree,  and 
may  be  found  in  any  kind  of  wood,  as  they  are  the  result 
of  deficient  nutrition,  or  loss  of  vitality.  (C.)  Star 
shakes  (Fig.  3,  c)  are  caused  by  the  shrinkage  of  the  tree 
upon  the  outside,  which  is  the  result  of  a  long  dry  spell 
of  intense  cold,  or  of  the  deficient  action  of  the  sap.  Star 
shakes  differ  from  heart  shakes  in  being  larger  upon  the 
outside  of  the  tree;  the  heart  shakes  are  larger  at  the 
center. 

Shakes  of  all  kinds  are  common  defects  and  sometimes 
are  so  numerous  as  to  make  the  log  worthless. 


GROWTH  OF  WOOD  9 

(D.)  Discolorations  are  caused  by  decay  which  has  at 
some  time  gained  a  foothold,  but  which  the  tree  was 
sufficiently  vigorous  to  overcome ;  or  they  may  be  due  to 
imperfect  or  insufficient  nutrition,  which  generally  re- 
sults in  the  entire  tree  being  affected  instead  of  small 
places  upon  the  tree. 

(E.)  Timber  grown  in  a  damp,  marshy  locality  is  gener- 
ally of  a  poorer  quality  than  that  grown  upon  higher 
ground,  as  more  water  is  taken  up  by  the  roots  than 
can  be  well  assimilated,  which  prevents  the  formation 
of  healthy  compact  wood.  Some  woods  are  adapted  to 
such  soil,  the  poplar  or  whitewood,  willow,  basswood, 
buckeye,  and  cypress  being  denizens  of  moist  or  swampy 
places. 

Trees  growing  where  they  are  exposed  to  winds  from 
one  direction  are  apt  to  assume  a  spiral  growth,  which 
renders  the  timber  almost  worthless,  as  it  is  weak,  and 
twists  badly  in  drying. 

(F.)  Trees  which  have  lumps  appearing  like  growths 
upon  them  are  usually  unhealthy.  These  lumps,  or 
tumors,  may  be  caused  by  defective  nutrition,  checks,  or 
shakes,  or  by  the  depredations  of  animals  or  insects. 

(G.)  Clefts,  or  splits,  in  a  tree  may  be  caused  by  extreme 
cold,  heat,  or  drouth.  They  may  extend  into  the  tree 
several  inches,  and  while  the  blemish  will  always  remain, 
showing  a  discoloration  or  other  defect,  nature  often 
repairs  it  so  that  the  strength  of  the  timber  is  but  slightly 
affected.  If  these  clefts  are  not  healed,  rain  may  find 
lodgment  there,  and  the  sap  be,  so  affected  that  the  ad- 
jacent wood  will  be  destroyed,  and  this  in  time  will  destroy 
the  tree. 


10  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

(H.)  Eggs  of  certain  insects  are  also  deposited  in  these 
clefts,  the  larvae  of  which  bore  into  the  wood  and  destroy 
it.  (I.)  If  it  were  not  for  the  birds  and  other  natural 
enemies  of  these  insects,  they  would  increase  so  rapidly 
that  the  lumber  supply  would  be  seriously  affected,  and, 
as  it  is,  there  are  very  few  trees  which  are  not  injured  to 
some  extent  by  wood  borers.  The  United  States  Bureau 
of  Entomology  estimates  that  the  damage  to  trees  by 
these  pests  amounts  to  at  least  $100,000,000  annually. 

(K.)  Sometimes  (as  at  d,  Fig.  3)  branches  die  or  are 
broken  off ;  this  gives  the  elements  access  to  the  heart  of 
the  tree  and  usually  causes  a  permanent  injury,  as  the 
birds  and  other  denizens  of  the  forest  frequently  dig  out 
the  rotten  wood  as  soon  as  the  weather  has  had  time  to 
do  its  work,  thus  giving  further  opportunity  for  decay  to 
continue  its  destructive  action.  If  this  does  not  happen, 
the  wood  will  grow  over  the  break  after  several  years  and 
leave  a  loose  knot  in  the  heart  of  the  tree,  which  will  be 
a  decided  blemish  when  the  log  is  made  into  lumber.  The 
sketch  shows  the  endeavor  of  nature  to  repair  the  defect, 
as  the  annual  rings  will  eventually  close  over  the  break. 

The  hard  knot  at  e,  Fig.  3,  is  not  a  serious  defect,  unless 
the  wood  is  to  be  used  for  finish  or  where  great  strength 
is  required. 

7.  When  to  cut  lumber.  -  -  Trees  which  are  intended 
for  the  use  of  wood-workers  should  not  be  felled  while  the 
sap  is  in  motion.  If  cut  at  any  other  time  than  mid- 
summer or  in  winter,  the  active  sap  is  apt  to  sour  and  to 
cause  decay.  Owing  to  the  scarcity  of  lumber,  or  from 
avarice,  this  precaution  often  is  ignored,  and  trees  are 
felled  at  any  time  of  year,  regardless  of  their  age ;  in  such 


GROWTH   OF  WOOD  11 

cases,  much  of  the  lumber  lacks  the  essential  qualities  of 
its  kind. 

When  a  tree  shows  signs  of  dying  at  the  top,  it  should  be 
cut  down,  as  the  quality  of  the  lumber  it  contains  will 
deteriorate  rapidly. 

SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

1 .  What  is  meant  by  exogenous  trees  ?     In  what  kinds  of  wood  are 
the  annual  layers  most  prominent  ?     Describe  the  formation  of  annual 
layers.     What  causes  the  difference  in  the  degrees  of  hardness  of 
wood  ?     In  the  color  and  odor  of  wood  ?     How  may  the  age  of  a  tree 
be  determined  ?    Are  the  broadest  annual  layers  found  in  young  or  in 
old  trees  ?    From  what  class  of  trees  does  soft  wood  come  ?    Hard  wood  ? 

2.  Describe  the  motion  of  sap.     What  forms  the  sap  wood?     With 
what  are  the  cells  of  the  sap  wood  filled  ?    Compare  sapwood  and  heart - 
wood. 

3.  Describe  the  four  different  tissues  in  a  tree.     Describe  the  inner 
bark. 

4.  What  are  the  medullary  rays?    In  what  woods  are  they  most 
prominent?     How  do  they  affect  the  strength  of  timber? 

5.  What  is  the  nature  of  trees  which  grow  in  exposed  situations? 
Where  are  the  straightest  trees  found?     Why  does  the  location  of  a 
tree  affect  the  grain  ?   What  is  meant  by  coarse,  fine,  straight,  and  cross- 
grained  lumber  ? 

6.  What  causes  wind  shakes  ?     Heart  shakes  ?     Star  shakes  ?     How 
may  they  be  distinguished  from  each  other  ?     What  causes  discolora- 
tions?     What  is  the  usual  character  of  timber  grown  upon  marshy 
ground  ?    What  woods  are  adapted  to  low  ground  ?    What  sometimes 
causes  spiral  growth?    What  do  lumps  and  excrescences  upon  a  tree 
generally  signify  ?    What  causes  clefts  in  trees  ?    What  are  the  results 
of  clefts  ?     Does  nature  perfectly  repair  the  cleft  ?    What  is  the  usual 
result  of  a  branch  being  broken  off? 

7.  What  is  the  per  cent  of  moisture  in  green  wood?     Should  very 
young  trees  be  cut  ?    Why  ?    How  may  the  top  of  a  tree  show  when  it 
should  be  felled  ?    At  what  time  of  year  should  trees  be  cut  ? 


CHAPTER  II 


LUMBERING  AND  VARIETIES  OF  WOOD 

8.  The  manufacture  of  lumber.  —  (A.)  There  are  two 
distinct  processes  in  the  preparation  of  lumber  for  com- 
mercial purposes,  logging  and  sawing ;  the  former  includes 

all  the  steps  from 
felling  the  tree  to  the 
delivery  of  the  logs 
at  the  sawmill;  there 
the  logs  are  sawed 
into  boards,  planks, 
and  timbers  of  cer- 
tain dimensions, 
which  are  piled  and 
exposed  to  the  sun 
and  air  for  a  suffi- 
cient time  to  allow  a 
large  part  of  the 
water  in  them  to 
evaporate,  when  the 
lumber  is  said  to  be 
"weather  dried," 
and  ready  for  ship- 
ment to  the  con- 


FIG.  4.  —  FELLING  A  TREE. 


sumer. 


12 


LUMBERING  ANl3  VARIETIES  OF  WOOD 


13 


(B.)  If  a  lumber 
concern  desires  to 
begin  operations  in 
one  of  the  great  for- 
est areas,  a  "  land- 
looker"  or  "  timber- 
cruiser"  is  sent  to 
spy  out  the  land, 
and  to  report  upon 
the  probable  yield  of 
timber  within  certain 
areas,  and  the  con- 
ditions which  would 
aid  or  retard  the 
work  of  getting  out 
the  logs.  If  the  re- 
port is  favorable,  the 
standing  timber  may 
be  purchased  by 
"  stumpage,"  which  means  that  a  certain  price  will  be 
paid  for  each  thousand  feet  of  lumber  cut,  or  the  land 
may  be  purchased  outright,  though  in  the  early  history  of 
lumbering  cases  have  been  known  where  these  little  for- 
malities were  omitted. 

Camps  are  located  at  convenient  points  throughout  the 
boundary,  roads  are  made  through  the  woods,  and  founda- 
tions, or  "skidways,"  built  at  right  angles  to  them,  to 
receive  the  logs  as  they  are  hauled  down  the  "  travoy  " 
roads,  which  are  narrow  trails  cut  through  the  woods  at 
frequent  distances  for  this  purpose. 

(C.)    The  above  preparations  completed,  the  work  of 


FIG.    5.  —  CUTTING    SMALL   BRANCHES    FROM 
FELLED  SPRUCE. 


14 


ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 


FIG.  6.  —  SKIDWAY  OF  SPRUCE  LOGS. 


FIG.  7. —  LOAD  OF  WHITE  PINE  LOGS. 


LUMBERING  AND  VARIETIES  OF  WOOD 


15 


felling  the  trees  is  begun  (Fig.  4)  ;  this  part  of  the  work 
requires  nice  skill  and  judgment,  as  it  is  necessary  that 
the  tree  should  fall  so  that  it  will  cause  the  least  damage 
to  itself  and  to  surrounding  trees.  After  the  tree  is  down, 
the  branches  are  cut 
close  to  the  trunk  (Fig. 
5)  and  carried  to  one 
side  so  that  they  will 
not  be  in  the  way 
of  the  horses.  The 
trunk  is  then  sawed 
into  logs,  twelve,  f our- 
teen,  sixteen,  or  eight- 
een feet  in  length, 
as  the  imperfections 
and  the  length  of  the 
tree  trunk  may  allow. 
Longer  or  shorter  logs 
are  rarely  cut  except 
for  special  purposes. 

(D.)  One  end  of  the 
log  is  placed  upon  a 
drag,  or  is  gripped  by 

a   pair    Of    tongS,    and         FIG.  8.  — HAULING  LOGS  BY  STEEL  CABLE. 

hauled  to  the  nearest 

travoy  road  and  skidway,  where  it  is  piled  (Fig.  6). 
(E.)  From  the  skidway  the  logs  are  loaded  upon  trucks, 
cars,  or  sledges  (Fig.  7),  and  carried  to  the  cable  (Fig.  8), 
which  is  a  method  of  hauling  logs  used  in  some  parts  of 
the  country,  or  to  the  railroad  (Fig.  9),  or  floated  down  a 
river  (Fig.  10).  If  either*  of  these  latter  methods  of 


16 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


<)    LOADIN3    LOGS    FROM    &HEDWAY   TO    TRAIN. 


FIG.  10.  —  BOOM  OF  LOGS. 


LUMBERING  AND  VARIETIES  OF  WOOD 


17 


transportation  is  employed,  the  logs  are  generally  piled 
upon  another  skidway  until  there  is  enough  for  a  train 
load,  or  until  the  conditions  upon  the  river  are  favorable 
for  them  to  be  floated  to  the  mill. 

(F.)    Figure  11  illustrates  a  jam  of  logs,  which  is  gener- 
ally the  most  dangerous  obstacle  the  lumberman  has  to 


FIG.  11.  —  Loa  JA:,I. 

face.  A  jam  usually  depends  upon  one  key  log,  which, 
if  loosened,  will  allow  the  jam  to  break  instantly.  The 
work  of  loosening  the  key  log  is  frequently  done  by  one 
or  two  men,  who  must  be  men  of  spring  steel  nerves  and 
muscles,  and  possessed  of  the  highest  possible  skill  and 
activity,  or  they  cannot  hope  to  break  a  large  jam 
and  escape  with  their  lives. 
KING'S  WOODWORK  —  2 


18 


ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 


(G.)  The  mill  illustrated  by  Fig.  12  is  one  which  re- 
ceives its  logs  by  both  rail  and  river.  In  this  case  the 
logs  which  come  in  by  rail  are  rolled  into  the  river,  as 
they  can  be  more  easily  placed  upon  the  chain  feed  of 
the  mill.  In  winter,  a  small  pond  of  water  is  heated,  in 
which  the  logs  are  soaked  before  they  are  taken  into  the 


FIG.  12. —  SAWMILL  IN  THE  BIG  TREE  DISTRICT. 

mill ;  this  draws  the  frost  out  of  them,  and  allows  them 
to  be  worked  much  more  easily. 

(H.)  There  are  different  types  of  sawmills,  in  which 
the  logs  are  worked  into  commercial  shapes.  The  small 
enterprises  use  portable  mills,  which  are  moved  into  the 
woods  and  located  upon  a  tract  of  land,  remaining  until 
all  the  desirable  timber  in  the  vicinity  has  beeri  sawed,  and 
then  moved  to  another  locality  and  the  process  repeated. 


LUMBERING  AND   VARIETIES  OF  WOOD  19 

Large  operations  are  conducted  upon  a  different  plan ; 
mills  of  a  permanent  type  are  erected  as  near  the  forest 
as  practicable,  roads  are  built,  tracks  laid,  and  the  logs 
brought  from  the  woods  by  one  of  the  methods  previously 
illustrated ;  or,  where  it  is  feasible,  flumes  are  built, 
and  the  logs  floated  in  these  to  the  mill.  In  erecting  a 
mill  of  this  sort,  a  location  is  selected  upon  a  waterway  if 
possible,  as  the  logs  may  be  floated  more  cheaply  than  by 
any  other  method  of  transportation,  though  some  of  the 
heavier  woods  will  not  float,  and  have  to  be  handled  on 
land.  (I.)  The  immersion  of  logs  in  water  also  improves 
the  quality  of  the  lumber,  as  the  action  of  the  water  upon 
the  sap  prevents  to  some  degree  the  tendency  to  decay, 
and  also  facilitates  the  seasoning  of  the  manufactured 
product.  If  the  log  is  left  in  the  water  until  it  becomes 
water-logged,  it  will  sink,  and  while  it  is  not  injured  for 
many  purposes,  the  wood  loses  some  of  the  strength  which 
it  is  supposed  to  have.  In  many  localities,  the  salvage 
of  sunken  logs  has  become  an  industry. 

(J.)  In  modern  large  lumbering  operations,  the  timber  to 
be  cut  is  selected  by  trained  foresters,  thus  insuring  a  per- 
manent supply,  and  in  the  near  future  all  extensive  lum- 
bering operations  will,  beyond  doubt,  be  conducted  upon 
a  scientific  basis,  as  it  is  apparent  that  unless  lumbering 
is  carried  on  differently  than  it  has  been  in  the  past,  the 
supply  for  the  future  will  be  entirely  inadequate  for  the 
demand. 

(K.)  In  the  smaller  sawmills,  the  logs  are  usually  sawed 
into  lumber  of  various  dimensions  by  a  circular  saw 
(Fig.  13) ;  but  in  the  larger  mills,  the  band  saw  generally 
is  used.  Figure  14  illustrates  a  double  cut  band  sawmill, 


20 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


in  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  saw  makes  a  cut  each  time 
the  log  is  carried  either  way. 

9.  To  saw  lumber  of  irregular  dimensions.  —  (A.)  Be- 
sides sawing  dimension  timber,  joists,  scantlings,  boards, 

and  planks  of  differ- 
ent thicknesses  are 
sawed,  as  follows : 
1",  1J",  1J",  2", 
2£",3",  31",  4";  and 
thicker,  if  desired. 

(B.)  If  lumber  is 
cut  again  from  its 
original  dimensions, 
it  is  said  to  be  re- 
sawed.  When  boards 
or  planks  of  the 
above  dimensions  are 
dressed  on  both  sides, 
they  will  be  about 
\"  thinner ;  thus,  a 
board  sawed  1"  thick 
will,  when  seasoned 
and  dressed,  be  but  |",  and  a  2"  plank  will  be  but  1|" 
or  If",  though  still  classed  by  their  sawed  dimensions. 

Thicker  lumber  than  that  above-mentioned  usually 
comes  under  the  head  of  dimension  .timber,  which  is  not 
used  to  the  extent  that  it  was  formerly,  as  steel  and  con- 
crete are  replacing  it  upon  heavy  work. 

If  1"  boards  are  wanted,  1-J"  or  "  five  quarter  "  lumber 
is  usually  resawed  to  furnish  it,  and  after  resawing,  is 
planed  upon  each  side  to  the  desired  thickness.  Boards 


FIG.  13.  — CIRCULAR  SAW. 


LUMBERING  AND   VARIETIES  OF   WOOD 


22 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


for  box  stock  and  other  special  purposes  are  sometimes 

sawed  as  thin  as  \" . 

(C.)    The  method  of  cutting  a  log  illustrated  by  Fig. 

15   is   known   as   plain,  slash,  or  bastard  sawing,  and  is 

the  cheapest  way  to  cut  logs,  both  as  to  time  and  waste. 

The  log  is  first  squared  to  secure  a  bed  upon  which  it  may 

lie  while  being  sawed, 
which  also  makes  it  un- 
necessary to  run  each 
board  by  the  edging 
saw  to  straighten  the 
edges.  The  slabs  at  a 
are  sawed  into  boards 
as  the  log  is  squared, 
and  the  bark,  or  "  live 
These  make  an  inferior 
nearly  all  sap,  but  they 


FIG.  15. —  PLAIN, 
SLASH,  OR  BAS- 
TARD SAWING. 


FIG.  16.  —  FOUR 
METHODS  OF 
QUARTERING. 


edges,"  sawed  off  afterward, 
grade  of  boards,  as  they  are 
are  well  worth  saving,  if  large  logs  are  being  cut. 

In  sawing  dimension  timber,  or  "  bill  stuff,"  good  judg- 
ment is  necessary  to  cut  a  log  so  that  the  greatest  amount 
of  marketable  lumber  can  be  made  from  it.  This  is  done 
by  cutting  various  sizes  from  a  log,  if  it  will  not  cut  all  of 
one  size  without  too  much  waste. 

(D.)  In  cutting  woods  which  have  prominent  medul- 
lary rays  or  silver  grain,  the  log  is  sawed  by  one  of  the 
methods  shown  in  Fig.  16,  the  object  being  to  bring  the 
rays  as  nearly  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  board  as 
possible,  thus  giving  the  broad  silver,  or  quarter,  grain 
which  is  so  highly  prized. 

The  best  results  are  obtained  from  sections  a,  b ;  this 
method  also  gives  the  most  waste.  In  plain  sawed 


LUMBERING  AND   VARIETIES  OF  WOOD  23 

lumber,  the  boards  from  the  middle  of  the  log  will 
have  the  quarter  grain ;  these  are  usually  culled  and 
sold  as  quarter-sawed. 

Neither  of  these  methods  results  in  economy  of  time 
or  material,  as  about  25  per  cent  of  each  is  used  in 
excess  of  that  required  in  plain  sawing ;  hence,  quarter- 
sawed  lumber  is  more  expensive  than  the  plain,  or  bastard, 
sawed. 

(E.)  Quarter-sawed  lumber  (Fig.  16)  is  preferred  not 
only  on  account  of  its  handsomer  grain,  but  because  it 
holds  its  shape  better  than  lumber  sawed  in  any  other 
way,  as  the  annual  layers  are  approximately  square 
with  the  surface  of  the  board.  As  the  board  shrinks 
in  the  direction  parallel  with  the  annual  layers,  and 
very  little  from  the  center  to  the  outside  of  the  tree, 
it  is  obvious  that  there  is  much  less  shrinking  and 
warping  in  quarter-sawed  lumber  than  in  that  which 
is  sawed  plain. 

The  best  grades  of  flooring  are  quarter-sawed,  and  stand 
usage  without  the  surface  splintering  much  better  than 
does  the  common  plain  sawed  material.  Quarter-sawed 
lumber  is  known  also  as  "  rift-sawed/7  "  vertical  grain," 
and  "  comb  grained." 

10.  The  grading  of  lumber.  —  Custom  varies  some- 
what in  different  localities  as  to  the  grading  of  lumber,  but 
there  are  generally  four  grades,  which  are  often  subgraded 
into  qualities  suitable  for  various  uses. 

"  Number  1  "  lumber  should  be  practically  perfect, 
though  in  large  dimensions,  small  and  unimportant  blem- 
ishes may  be  allowed.  These  blemishes  in  a  board  are 
usually  restricted  to  not  more  than  one  inch  of  sap,  a  small 


24  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

sound  knot,  or  small  discoloration,  and  but  one  blemish 
to  a  board  is  allowed. 

"  Number  2  "  lumber  is  generally  allowed  two  sound 
knots,  an  inch  of  sap,  and  one  other  blemish. 

"  Common  boards  "  are  allowed  three  or  four  sound 
knots,  but  two  thirds  of  one  side  must  be  clear  stock. 

"  Culls,"  the  lowest  grade;  are  used  only  upon  the 
cheapest  work.  One  half  of  the  board  must  be  usable. 

In  many  cases  the  boards  are  graded  by  the  width  of 
clear  stock  which  can  be  taken  out.  There  are  tables 
published  by  the  different  associations  of  lumber  manu- 
facturers which  give  the  gradings  under  which  their  lum- 
ber has  been  measured  and  shipped,  but  as  these  vary 
from  time  to  time  no  permanent  list  can  be  given. 

The  principal  reason  why  there  can  be  no  permanent 
grading  of  lumber  is  that  the  forests  from  which  the  finest 
timber  can  be  cut  in  marketable  quantities  are  being 
destroyed  faster  than  they  can  be  replaced  by  nature.  In 
anticipation  of  this  condition,  the  Division  of  Forestry  of 
the  Department  of  Agriculture  is  actively  engaged  in 
organizing  government  forest  preserves,  in  educating  the 
people,  and  in  promoting  legislation  aimed  at  the  husband- 
ing of  our  forests.  When  we  consider  the  abundance  of  high 
grade  lumber  a  few  years  ago,  and  the  fabulous  prices 
which  the  same  grades  now  bring,  it  is  evident  that  this 
movement  should  have  begun  during  the  days  of  our 
grandfathers,  instead  of  waiting  until  nearly  all  the  best 
lumber  in  the  great  forests  east  of  the  Mississippi  had 
been  cut,  and  inestimable  damage  wrought  by  forest  fires. 

ii.  The  testing  of  lumber.  —  (A.)  Dry,  sound  stock, 
if  struck  with  the  knuckles  or  with  a  hammer,  will  give  a 


LUMBERING  AND  VARIETIES  OF  WOOD  25 

clear  ringing  response,  while  a  wet  or  decaying  piece  will 
give  a  dull  response  to  the  blow. 

(B.)  Every  kind  of  lumber  has  its  peculiar  odor,  by 
which,  as  well  as  by  the  grain,  the  student  should  learn 
to  distinguish  the  woods  in  common  use.  This  may  be 
more  easily  done  before  the  wood  has  been  thoroughly 
seasoned.  Wood  in  general  has  a  sweet  and  pleasing 
odor ;  if  a  sour  or  musty  smell  is  perceptible,  it  indicates 
that  decay  is  present. 

(C.)  If  there  is  much  variation  in  the  color  of  timber, 
or  black  and  blue  spots,  the  stick  is  probably  diseased. 

(D.)  Decay  is  a  disease,  which  may  be  prevented  by 
dryness  or  ventilation,  and  frequently  may  be  cured  by 
soaking  the  wood  in  water  for  several  days,  or  by  steam- 
ing. The  disease  of  decay  is  cured  also  by  chemical  pre- 
servatives being  forced  into  lumber  by  pressure ;  this  at 
the  same  time  prevents  insects  from  boring  into  the  tree. 

Alternate  wetting  and  drying  will  produce  rot,  but  most 
lumber,  if  permanently  submerged  or  if  kept  perfectly  dry, 
will  last  almost  indefinitely.  Dry  rot  spreads  to  adjoining 
timbers,  and  even  to  those  which  have  no  connection 
with  the  one  originally  infected. 

12.  Surveying  or  estimating  lumber.  —  (A.)  It  is  the 
custom  to  consider  any  board  less  than  one  inch  in  thick- 
ness as  an  inch  board,  and  anything  over  one  inch  is 
measured  as  so  many  inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch. 
For  instance,  a  board  f "  thick  is  surveyed  as  a  full  inch, 
while  one  which  is  sawed  \\"  in  thickness  is  estimated  by 
obtaining  its  surface  measure,  and  increasing  it  by  one  half. 
Thus,  a  plank  12'  long,  8"  wide,  and  1J"  thick  would  have 
twelve  feet  board  measure  in  it. 


26  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

In  some  localities  there  is  a  sliding  scale  of  prices  which 
varies  with  each  quarter  inch  in  thickness  of  resawed 
lumber,  but  this  is  not  universal. 

(B.)  In  surveying  joists  or  scantling,  it  is  customary 
to  obtain  the  fraction  of  a  foot,  board  measure,  for  each 
lineal  foot.  Thus,  a  piece  of  2  x  4  (inches  understood) 
has  two  thirds  of  a  foot  for  each  foot  in  length ;  a  2  x  6  has 
one  foot,  and  a  piece  of  2  x  8  has  one  and  one  third  feet  of 
lumber  for  each  foot  in  length  of  lumber  measured.  If  a 
joist  is  2  x  12,  doubling  its  length  gives  the  number  of 
square  feet,  board  measure,  that  the  joist  contains. 

(C.)  In  measuring  a  common  board,  the  widest  parallel 
piece  which  can  be  cut  from  it  is  the  width  of  the  board 
being  measured ;  therefore  the  board  should  be  surveyed 
at  the  narrowest  place.  In  measuring  more  expensive 
lumber,  it  is  customary  to  average  the  width  of  the  board. 

(D.)  In  estimating  all  kinds  of  lumber  in  common 
use,  the  lumber  scale  shown  in  Fig.  17  is  used.  It  is 
made  of  thin,  cleft  hickory,  about  three  feet  long,  with 
one  end  large  enough  for  a  suitable  handle ;  on  the  other 
end  is  a  metal  head,  which  is  held  against  the  edge  of  the 
board  while  the  scale  is  being  read. 

The  length  of  the  board  is  marked  near  the  handle,  and 
at  the  end  of  the  socket  of  the  metal  head,  as  at  a. 

In  using  this  scale,  the  hooked  end,  or  head,  is  held 
against  the  edge  of  the  board,  as  at  b ;  the  eye  follows 
along  the  same  line  of  figures  upon  which  the  length  of  the 
board  is  found,  reading  those  figures  nearest  the  width  of 
the  board.  Thus,  a  scale  laid  upon  a  board  16'  long 
would,  without  further  measuring  or  calculating,  show  that 
the  board  contains  17'  board  measure.  If  the  board  were 


LUMBERING  AND  VARIETIES  OF  WOOD 


27 


12'  long,  it  would  contain  13';  and  if  14'  long,  by  reading 
the  middle  line  of  figures,  the  board  would  be  seen  to  con- 
tain 15'. 

In  using  this  scale,  it  is  customary  to  read  to  the  nearest 
figure,  and  when  there  is  no  difference,  to  alternate  be- 
tween the  lower  and  the  higher  figures  upon  different 
boards.  Thus,  a  board  12'  long  and  8f"  or  9J"  wide 
would  be  read  as  having  9'  board  measure  in  it.  Two 


FIG.  17. — LUMBER  SCALE. 

boards  8|"  wide,  of  the  same  length  as  the  above,  would 
be  measured  as  having  8'  and  9',  respectively,  in  their 
surfaces.  In  short,  the  fractions  of  a  foot  are  not  consid- 
ered in  surveying  the  lumber  in  common  use. 

13.  Qualities  of  wood.  —  (A.)  Certain  kinds  of  wood 
are  adapted  for  some  purposes  better  than  are  others; 
the  wood-worker,  therefore,  should  be  familiar  with  the 
qualities  which  conditions  demand,  and  the  kinds  of  woods 
which  have  these  qualities. 

Lumber  for  framing  should  be  strong  and  durable;  it 
should  be  cut  from  trees  which  grow  to  a  size  that  will 
allow  large  dimensions  to  be  cut  from  them. 

For  outside  finish,  the  material  should  be  wood  which 


28  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

will  stand  the  weather,  can  be  easily  worked,  and  will 
hold  its  shape  well. 

Timbers  that  are  to  be  buried  must  possess  the  quality 
of  durability,  and  should  be  of  sufficient  strength  to  resist 
the  strain  which  will  be  put  upon  them. 

Flooring  should  wear  well,  hold  its  shape,  and  be  of 
good  appearance.  In  providing  lumber  for  inside  finish, 
care  should  be  used  that  it  has  good  grain  and  color,  is 
not  too  soft,  and  that  it  will  hold  its  shape  well.  Al- 
most any  wood  may  be  used  as  far  as  strength  is  con- 
cerned, but  lumber  which  shrinks  and  warps  badly  is 
unfit  for  finishing. 

Shingles  should  be  of  wood  which  will  resist  decay,  and 
which  has  the  least  tendency  to  warp  and  split. 

Boards  which  are  to  be  used  for  siding  should  hold  paint 
well,  and  be  as  free  as  possible  from  the  tendency  to  warp, 
split,  and  twist  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 

(B.)  All  material  used  in  framing  a  building  should  be 
weather-dried  in  good  drying  weather  for  at  least  thirty 
days  for  each  inch  in  thickness,  and  that  used  for  inside  and 
outside  finish  and  floors  should  be  thoroughly  kiln-dried, 
and  kept  in  a  dry  place  until  ready  for  use.  These  condi- 
tions are  not  always  obtainable,  but  if  the  best  results 
are  desired,. they  should  be  followed  as  closely  as  possible. 

The  woods  hereafter  described  comprise  the  principal 
varieties  used  by  the  wood-workers  of  the  United  States. 

(C.)  Ash  (deciduous,  or  broad-leaved)  is  an  open- 
grained,  light-colored  wood,  in  which  the  porous  portions 
of  the  annual  rings  are  quite  prominent,  thus  making  it 
somewhat  coarse-grained. 

It  grows  in  the  Northern  states,  and  is  a  wood  of  medium 


LUMBERING  AND  VARIETIES   OF  WOOD  29 

weight  and  hardness.  It  is  tough  and  elastic,  the  young 
growth  being  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  wagons, 
machinery  frames,  and  for  similar  purposes,  as  it  is  not 
expensive,  quite  easily  worked,  and  very  strong.  It 
has  a  tendency  to  decay,  and  is  often  badly  infested  with 
insects;  therefore  it  is  not  suitable  for  building  construc- 
tion or  for  contact  with  soil. 

Ash  grows  in  forests  with  other  broad-leaved  trees, 
and  is  plentiful  in  many  localities.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  this  wood  recognized  in  commerce:  the  white,  which  is 
light-colored,  and  the  black,  which  is  of  a  brownish  tinge, 
though  there  is  little  difference  in  the  grain  of  the  two. 
Sap  is  not  considered  a  defect,  but  is  regarded  as  the  best 
part  of  the  tree  for  some  purposes.  The  wood  grown  in 
the  Northern  states  is  generally  tougher  than  that  grown 
farther  south. 

The  wood  from  the  older  and  larger  trees  is  not  so 
tough  and  hard  as  that  from  the  younger  growth,  and  is 
much  used  for  cabinet  work  and  for  interior  finish.  It 
should  be  filled  with  a  paste-filler,  after  which  it  may  be 
brought  to  a  fine  polish.  The  wood  holds  its  shape  well 
and  is  useful  for  the  purposes  mentioned. 

(D.)  Apple  (dec.)  is  not  used  for  construction,  as  the 
proper  dimensions  cannot  be  secured,  and  as  it  is  very 
stubborn  to  work.  It  is  one  of  the  best  woods  known  to  re- 
sist splitting,  and  is  much  used  for  chisel  and  saw  handles. 

(E.)  Basswood,  or  linden  (dec.),  is  a  soft,  porous  wood, 
which  shrinks  considerably  in  drying.  It  is  used  for  the 
backing  of  veneer  work,  for  drawer  bottoms  of  the  com- 
mon grades  of  furniture,  for  case  backs,  and  similar  pur- 
poses, and  is  also  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of  spools 


30  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

and  other  small  articles  which  are  made  in  large  quanti- 
ties. In  building  construction,  basswood  is  used  for  ceil- 
ings, and  for  other  work  where  strength  is  not  needed, 
though  for  use  in  such  places  it  should  be  thoroughly 
seasoned,  or  the  joints  will  open. 

If  steamed,  basswood  may  be  bent  to  almost  any  form. 
Steaming  also  cures  to  a  great  extent  the  tendency  of 
this  wood  to  shrink  and  swell. 

(F.)  Beech  (dec.)  is  adapted  for  use  in  places  where  the 
ability  to  resist  a  heavy  strain  or  hard  wear  is  necessary, 
as  in  plane  stocks,  tool  handles,  and  parts  of  machinery. 
In  building  work,  it  is  used  to  some  extent  for  flooring  and 
for  inside  finishing.  It  is  used  also  for  furniture,  though 
the  difficulty  of  working  it  makes  it  more  expensive  than 
other  equally  desirable  woods. 

If  exposed  to  alternations  of  dryness  and  dampness,  it 
decays  rapidly  ;  if  submerged,  it  gives  fair  satisfaction. 

Beech  trees  are  common  through  the  Ohio  and  Missis- 
sippi valleys,  and  are  found  to  some  extent  in  all  of  the 
states  between  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

(G.)  Birch  (dec.)  is  one  of  our  most  useful  hard  woods. 
It  is  found  in  abundance  in  the  broad-leaved  forests  of 
the  Eastern  states  and  Canada.  There  are  two  varieties 
recognized  in  commerce,  the  red  and  the  white  birch. 
The  former  is  used  considerably  for  inside  finish  and  for 
furniture.  It  takes  a  stain  well,  and  may  be  made  to 
imitate  cherry  or  mahogany  so  exactly  as  to  deceive  any 
one  but  an  expert.  When  finished  in  its  own  natural  color, 
it  is  a  satisfactory  wood  for  the  above  uses,  but  as  it  ages, 
it  turns  to  a  muddy  brown ;  as  it  is  a  stubborn  wood  to 
work;  it  is  not  popular. 


LUMBERING  AND   VARIETIES  OF  WOOD  31 


FIG.  18.  —  BEECH  AND  SUGAR  MAPLE  FOREST. 


32  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

Canoe,  or  paper,  birch  is  softer  than  the  red  variety, 
and  is  used  to  some  extent  by  paper  pulp  makers,  and 
for  the  manufacture  of  spools,  dowels,  and  a  large  variety 
of  small  articles. 

(H.)  Butternut  or  white  walnut  (dec.)  has  a  good  grain 
and  color ;  it  is  quite  soft,  though  not  so  easily  worked  as 
are  some  harder  woods,  for  it  has  a  tendency  to  string  while 
being  dressed  to  a  fine  surface.  It  does  not  absorb  mois- 
ture readily,  and  holds  its  shape  under  trying  conditions. 

Butternut  does  not  split  easily,  takes  a  fine  polish,  and 
is  used  considerably  for  furniture  and  for  interior  finish. 

(I.)  Cedar  (coniferous,  or  needle-leaved)  is  of  twQ 
varieties,  the  red  and  the  white.  The  former  is  used  con- 
siderably for  cooperage  and  veneers,  lead  pencils,  and  for 
lining  moth-proof  drawers  and  chests,  as  its  strong  odor  and 
bitter  taste  protects  it  from  the  ravages  of  insects.  The 
supply  of  red  cedar  is  becoming  limited,  and  it  is  now  too 
expensive  for  common  use,  though  our  forefathers  used  it 
for  shingles.  The  unwise  and  avaricious  cutting  of  this 
valuable  timber  and  of  others,  notably  white  and  Georgia 
pine,  has  destroyed  what  would  have  been  a  supply  for 
all  time,  if  the  cutting  had  been  properly  controlled. 

White  cedar  is  much  more  plentiful,  and  a  much  inferior 
wood ;  it  is  used  for  shingles,  water  tanks,  boat  building, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  barrels  and  cigar  boxes.  It  is 
a  very  durable  wood,  and  shrinks  but  little  in  drying.  It 
is  well  adapted  for  burying,  though  not  strong  enough  to 
resist  a  very  heavy  strain.  It  grows  faster  than  the  red 
cedar,  and  makes  a  larger  tree. 

( J.)  Cherry  (dec.)  is  one  of  the  best  of  our  native  woods. 
It  is  much  used  for  fine  finish  and  for  cabinet  work,  as  it 


LUMBERING  AND   VARIETIES  OF  WOOD  33 

holds  its  shape  well,  if  thoroughly  seasoned,  and  takes  a 
fine  finish.  Its  grain  is  of  fine,  even  texture,  of  reddish 
color,  and  often  stained  to  imitate  mahogany.  When 
well  ebonized,  it  cannot  be  distinguished  from  the  genuine 
wood  except  by  weight. 

Cherry  is  used  by  pattern  makers  for  parts  of  patterns 
which  are  to  stand  rough  usage.  The  tree  is  found  in  all 
of  the  states  east  of  Texas,  and  in  the  Mississippi  valley, 
but  it  is  becoming  too  scarce  for  common  use. 

(K.)  Chestnut  (dec.)  is  a  soft,  open-grained  wood, 
adapted  to  use  in  exposed  situations.  It  is  used  a  great 
deal  for  inside  finish,  as  it  will  take  a  fine  polish,  and  as 
the  figures  formed  by  the  grain  make  it  a  very  handsome 
wood  for  the  purpose. 

Not  being  a  strong  wood,  it  will  not  stand  a  heavy 
strain,  and  will  shrink  and  crack  badly  in  drying. 

(L.)  Cypress  (con.)  is  similar  to  cedar.  It  is  one  of  our 
most  durable  woods,  and  perhaps  the  best  we  have  for 
outside  work.  It  is  used  extensively  for  shingles ;  roofs 
covered  with  cypress  shingles  have  been  known  to  last  for 
more  than  seventy-five  years.  The  wood  is  light,  straight- 
grained,  and  soft ;  it  is  easily  worked,  and  holds  its  shape 
well.  It  is  to  great  extent  taking  the  place  of  white  pine 
in  the  manufacture  of  doors,  sash,  and  blinds,  and  is  con- 
sidered by  many  to  be  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  wood. 
It  is  much  used  in  building  small  boats,  and  for  use  in 
places  where  it  will  be  exposed  to  dampness.  Eaves, 
troughs,  and  tanks  made  of  it  give  better  satisfaction  than 
those  made  of  any  other  woods  except  redwood  and  cedar, 
which  are  the  only  woods  having  anti-decaying  qualities 
equal  to  cypress. 

KING'S  WOODWORK  —  3 


34  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

Cypress  may  be  obtained  in  boards  of  almost  any  dimen- 
sions, and  if  it  were  stronger  and  harder,  it  would  be  one 
of  our  best  woods  for  framing  and  finishing.  It  is  used  for 
the  latter  purpose  to  a  considerable  extent,  as  it  has  a 
handsome  grain,  and  will  take  a  polish  well ;  if  thoroughly 
seasoned,  it  will  hold  its  shape  as  well  as  any  wood.  If 
it  is  seasoned  slowly,  it  does  not  crack  to  an  appreciable 
extent,  but  if  forced,  it  is  apt  to  be  filled  with  fine  shakes. 
Sap  is  not  considered  a  blemish. 

Cypress  grows  in  the  swamps  and  along  the  rivers  of  the 
Southern  states,  the  best  of  it  coming  from  those  border- 
ing on  the  gulf. 

(M.)  Elm  (dec.)  is  a  moderately  hard  wood,  difficult  to 
split.  It  warps  and  checks  to  some  extent  in  drying,  but 
when  well  seasoned  it  holds  its  shape  as  well  as  most  woods 
in  common  use.  It  is  susceptible  to  a  good  polish,  and  is 
used  a  great  deal  for  interior  finish  and  furniture,  as  it 
takes  a  stain  well.  Much  of  the  quartered  oak  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  cheap  furniture  grew  upon  an  elm 
stump.  It  is  used  largely  in  cooperage,  and  stands  con- 
tact with  the  soil  satisfactorily. 

The  elm  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States, 
but  is  more  abundant  east  of  the  Mississippi  river. 

(N.)  Gum  (dec.),  or,  as  it  is  more  generally  known, 
sweet  gum,  is  extensively  used  for  interior  finish  upon  the 
better  class  of  buildings.  It  warps  and  shrinks  badly  un- 
less thoroughly  seasoned,  in  which  condition  it  is  a  very 
satisfactory  wood.  It  is  tough  and  strong,  cross-grained, 
and  of  fine  texture ;  its  color  is  a  warm,  reddish  brown, 
and  it  finishes  handsomely.  The  gum  tree  grows  abun- 
dantly in  the  Southern  states. 


LUMBERING   AND   VARIETIES   OF  WOOD  35 

(O.)  Hemlock  (con.)  is  found  in  most  of  the  Northern 
states,  and  is  used  for  scantlings,  rough  boards,  under 
floors,  and  for  boarding  preparatory  to  siding.  It  is  a 
fairly  durable  wood,  but  splits  easily,  and  is  apt  to  be  full 
of  wind  shakes.  It  holds  nails  firmly. 

(P.)  Hickory  (dec.)  is  the  hardest  native  wood  in  com- 
mon use,  and  the  toughest  wood  that  we  have ;  it  is  too 
hard  to  be  used  for  building  material.  It  is  flexible,  and  its 
principal  use  is  for  wagon  and  carriage  work,  and  for  other 
purposes  where  bent  wood  and  great  strength  is  required. 
As  it  does  not  split  easily,  it  is  much  used  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  tool  handles.  It  is  liable  to  attacks  from  boring  in- 
sects, and  these  pests  often  destroy  much  valuable  timber. 

Sap  is  not  considered  a  defect,  and  the  sapwood  is  in 
fact  the  most  desirable  part  of  the  tree,  on  account  of  its 
creamy  whiteness  and  great  strength. 

(Q.)  Locust  (dec.)  is  found  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
country,  and  is  a  useful  and  durable  wood.  It  is  much 
used  for  fence  posts  and,  in  damp  locations,  for  railway 
ties,  and  sometimes  for  furniture,  as  it  has  a  yellowish 
brown  color  which  takes  a  polish  well. 

(R.)  Maple  (dec.)  is  a  heavy,  strong  wood,  nearly  white, 
with  a  yellow  or  brownish  tinge.  There  are  several  kinds 
of  maple,  but  the  kind  generally  used  for  commercial 
purposes  is  the  sugar  or  rock  maple.  It  does  not  shrink 
excessively,  seasons  without  serious  checking,  and  from  it 
a  very  fine  surface  for  polishing  may  be  obtained.  It  is 
much  used  in  places  where  it  is  exposed  to  wear,  as  in 
floors,  butchers'  tables,  etc.,  and  to  a  considerable  extent 
as  a  cabinet  wood,  and  for  interior  finish.  Maple  does 
not  resist  decay  as  well  as  do  some  other  woods. 


36  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

Sap  is  not  considered  a  defect,  and  on  account  of  its 
whiteness  the  sapwood  is  often  preferred  to  the  heartwood 
for  many  uses. 

Bird's-eye  maple  is  of  this  wood,  but  some  peculiarity 
in  the  growth  of  certain  trees,  believed  by  many  to  be  caused 
by  woodpeckers,  has  caused  the  tree  to  have  what  seem 
to  be  numerous  small  knots,  known  as  curls  or  eyes.  The 
presence  of  these  imparts  a  beauty  which  is.  possessed  by  no 
other  wood,  and  has  never  been  successfully  imitated. 

(S.)  Mahogany  (dec.)  is  an  imported  wood,  and  is 
much  used  in  the  finish  of  fine  buildings  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  fine  furniture.  It  is  of  a  rich  red  color,  and  has 
a  beautiful  grain  and  other  desirable  qualities  which  make 
it  the  finest  wood  for  finish  in  use.  It  holds  its  shape 
remarkably  well,  unless  it  is  very  cross-grained,  and  is  in 
every  respect  an  ideal  cabinet  wood.  Its  cost  is  all  that 
prevents  it  from  being  universally  used. 

(T.)  Oak  (dec.)  is  our  best  all-round  native  wood.  It 
is  found  abundantly  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country, 
and  forms  the  larger  part  of  our  broad-leaved  forests. 
There  are  a  number  of  species  of  oak,  but  they  are  in  general 
known  to  commerce  as  the  red  and  the  white  oak.  Nearly 
all  these  trees  are  cut  for  commercial  purposes,  but  the 
white  oak  is  the  finest.  The  wood  of  some  varieties  of 
oak  is  so  similar  to  the  white  oak  that  the  difference  can- 
not be  distinguished  after  the  work  is  finished,  therefore 
they  are  all  put  together  and  sold  as  a  medium  grade  of 
white  oak  for  purposes  where  the  strength  of  the  genuine 
is  not  required.  This  will  generally  account  for  the  dif- 
ference in  the  grain  and  the  color  which  is  noticed  in 
handling  the  commercial  white  oak. 


LUMBERING  AND  VARIETIES   OF  WOOD  37 

Red  oak  is  a  coarser  wood,  and  is  more  apt  to  give  trouble 
in  seasoning  than  white  oak,  though  they  both  have  to  be 
dried  very  carefully,  or  there  may  be  checks  and  cracks 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  wood  will  be  ruined.  Both 
the  red  and  the  white  oak  are  used  extensively  in  finish- 
ing and  cabinet  work,  but  the  red  oak  is  used  commonly 
upon  the  cheaper  grades,  as  it  is  easier  to  work. 

The  two  varieties  should  never  be  used  upon  the  same 
job,  unless  the  wood  is  to  be  stained  a  dark  color,  as 
there  is  a  marked  difference  in  their  appearance  when 
finished.  White  oak  is  much  used  for  -flooring,  quartered 
oak  resulting  in  a  beautiful  floor,  if  the  work  is  well  done. 

Oak  is  not  a  suitable  wood  for  exposure  to  trying  cli- 
matic conditions,  though  if  buried  deeply,  or  in  water, 
where  there  is  no  alteration  in  moisture  or  dryness,  it 
gives  satisfaction.  White  oak  is  used  to  great  extent  for 
railroad  ties,  but  what  these  are  to  be  made  of  in  the  future 
is  causing  much  speculation,  as  the  end  of  the  present 
supply  of  white  oak  is  already  in  sight. 

(U.)  Pine  (con.)  in  its  different  varieties  is  used  more 
than  any  other  kind  of  wood.  It  is  found  in  nearly  all 
parts  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada.  Certain  sec- 
tions of  the  country  which  were  once  covered  with  virgin 
pine  forests  have,  however,  been  so  denuded  of  their 
wealth,  and  so  many  of  their  young  trees  destroyed, 
within  a  few  short  years,  by  the  depredations  of  lumber- 
men who  cared  more  for  their  immediate  profit  than  for 
the  prospective  good  of  the  nation,  that  instead  of  a  per- 
manent and  continual  supply  of  this  valuable  wood,  there 
are  now  nothing  but  barren  hillsides,  and  the  moss-grown 
ruins  of  the  lumber  camps  and  sawmills  by  means  of 


38  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

which  this  irremediable  wrong  was  perpetrated  against 
posterity. 

White  pine  is  soft,  easily  worked,  and  when  thoroughly 
seasoned  will  hold  its  shape  better  than  any  other  wood 
except  mahogany.  For  these  reasons,  and  on  account  of 
its  adaptability  to  gluing,  it  is  used  almost  exclusively  by 
pattern  makers.  It  is  found  in  the  Northern  states  and 
in  Canada.  Farther  south  is  the  belt  in  which  grows 
the  grade  of  pine  known  as  "  Carolina,"  the  bastard  or 
yellow  pine.  This  belt  extends  from  the  Mississippi 
valley  to  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  is  of  a  width  to  include 
Virginia  and  the  Carolinas.  This  pine  is  harder  to  work, 
and  has  a  more  pronounced  grain  than  has  the  white  pine, 
but  it  makes  a  handsome  wood  for  interior  trim,  as  it  is 
capable  of  a  fine  finish.  Carolina  pine  is  neither  so  hard 
nor  so  strong  as  "  Georgia  "  pine,  which  is  also  known 
commercially  as  long-leaved  pine,  pitch  pine,  or  hard  pine. 
This  wood  is  found  from  Virginia  to  Texas,  in  the  states 
bordering  upon  the  ocean  and  the  gulf. 

Pitch  pine  has  a  finer,  closer  grain  than  has  either  of  the 
two  above  described,  being  much  stronger  and  more  dense. 
This  is  the  wood  which  is  used  for  heavy  timbers  of  large 
buildings,  and  the  above  described  grades  should  never 
be  confused  with  it,  the  Carolina  pine  resulting  in  work  of 
less  strength,  for  instance,  if  used  where  the  pitch  pine 
was  intended.  Although  this  wood  is  very  hard  and 
strong,  and  is  the  best  wood  for  heavy  construction,  as 
has  been  stated,  it  should  never  be  used  in  any  place  which 
is  not  dry  and  well  ventilated,  as  it  will  decay  rapidly  if 
placed  in  a  damp  location,  or  where  it  will  come  in  contact 
with  the  earth. 


LUMBERING  AND   VARIETIES   OF   WOOD  39 


FIG.  19.  —  WHITE  PINE  FOREST. 


40  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

There  are  several  varieties  of  pine  besides  those  above 
mentioned.  These  are  generally  less  desirable  for  finish 
or  for  construction  than  is  the  white,  yellow,  or  Carolina 
pine,  but  they  are  used  extensively  for  the  common  work 
of  light  building,  and  by  box  factories. 

(V.)  Poplar  or  whitewood  (dec.)  is  cut  from  the  tulip 
tree,  and  is  found  principally  in  the  Middle  West  and  in 
some  parts  of  the  South.  It  is  of  light  weight  and  color, 
with  few  knots,  and  is  soft  and  easily  worked.  It  is  used 
for  the  common  grades  of  cabinet  work,  inside  finishing, 
veranda  posts,  etc.  It  takes  a  stain  remarkably  well,  and 
its  even  texture  makes  it  a  favorite  with  wood  carvers. 
It  warps  and  shrinks  considerably  in  seasoning,  and 
unless  held  in  its  place,  it  is  apt  to  twist. 

(W.)  Redwood  (con.)  is  taken  from  the  big  trees  on  the 
Pacific  slope ;  it  is  straight-grained,  soft,  and  free  from 
knots,  and  may  be  obtained  in  boards  of  any  size  which 
it  is  possible  to  cut.  It  has  the  reputation  of  being  one  of 
the  best  woods  for  use  in  trying  conditions,  or  where  it 
will  be  exposed  to  alternations  of  dryness  and  moisture. 

It  has  a  very  coarse  grain  and  takes  a  finish  well,  but 
it  is  not  apt  to  become  very  popular  for  inside  finish,  as  it  is 
easily  marred,  and,  although  very  soft,  will,  when  thor- 
oughly dry,  destroy  the  edge  of  tools  quicker  than  many 
harder  woods.  It  turns  to  a  dull,  unattractive  brown  as 
it  ages,  if  it  is  finished  in  its  natural  color. 

It  is  claimed  by  many  to  be  the  best  wood  for  shingles, 
as  it  resists  decay  indefinitely.  It  shrinks  both  ways  of 
the  grain,  and  burns  very  slowly. 

(X.)  Spruce  (con.)  is  moderately  hard  and  strong,  and 
in  New  England  is  used  generally  for  framing  light  build- 


LUMBERING  AND   VARIETIES   OF  WOOD  41 


FIG.  20.  —  DOUGLAS  SPRUCE  FOREST. 


42  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

ings  and  for  rough  boarding.  Its  color  is  almost  pure 
white,  and  it  has  the  valuable  quality  of  holding  nails 
firmly.  There  is  little  difference  between  the  heart  and 
the  sap  wood,  and  its  texture  is  sometimes  such  that  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  it  from  white  pine.  It  warps  and 
twists  badly  in  seasoning,  and  on  that  account  is  not  suit- 
able for  framing  trusses,  unless  seasoned  lumber  is  used. 

Spruce  is  used  also  for  a  cheap  grade  of  clapboards,  for 
flooring,  ceiling,  and  laths,  and  also  by  paper  pulp  manufac- 
turers in  immense  quantities.  It  is  a  fairly  satisfactory 
wood  for  immersion,  but  if  exposed  to  alternations  of  dry- 
ness  and  moisture,  it  decays  rapidly. 

(Y.)  Sycamore,  or  buttonwood  (dec.),  is  found  in  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  Mississippi  valley  and  in  the  Eastern 
states.  It  is  a  moderately  stiff  and  strong  wood,  coarse- 
grained, and  quite  difficult  to  smooth  to  a  surface,  as  the 
grain  seems  to  run  in  all  directions  at  once.  It  has  also 
a  disagreeable  habit  of  warping  and  twisting  as  it  seasons, 
but  if  well  seasoned  and  properly  handled,  it  will  give  no 
more  trouble  than  do  other  woods.  It  takes  a  good 
polish,  and  is  a  desirable  wood  for  inside  finish. 

(Z.)  Walnut,  or  black  walnut  (dec.),  is  found  in  all  the 
Middle  and  Eastern  states.  It  is  heavy,  firm,  and  strong, 
of  a  chocolate  color,  and  takes  a  fine  finish.  It  is  well 
adapted  to  inside  finish  and  to  furniture  work. 

At  one  time  nearly  all  the  best  work  was  done  in  this 
wood,  but  at  present  it  is  out  of  style,  as  oak  and  other 
woods  are  more  in  favor.  Like  other  varieties  of  our  best 
woods,  this  has  been  cut  out,  and  is  now  too  expensive  to 
be  considered  as  anything  but  a  fancy  wood. 

White  walnut  is  described  under  butternut. 


LUMBERING  AND  VARIETIES  OF  WOOD  43 


FlG.    21. RJBD    SfBUCJS   AND   BALSAM   Fill    KlLL^iJ    BY    FlKK. 


44  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 


SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

8.  How  are  small  lumbering  operations  conducted?     Large  opera- 
tions ?    What  is  the  favorite  method  of  bringing  logs  to  the  mill  ? 
Why  ?     Compare  the  circular  and  the  band  saw  as  to  economy.     Why 
is  scientific  forestry  a  necessity  ? 

9.  What  are  the  usual  thicknesses  to  which  planks  are  sawed  ?    How 
much  thinner  is  dressed  than  sawed  lumber  ?    How  are  £  boards  usu- 
ally sawed  ?    How  should  a  log  be  sawed  to  get  the  most  out  of  it  ?  To 
furnish  dimension  lumber  ?     Describe  the  advantages  and  the  methods 
of  quarter-sawing.     Compare  plain  and  quarter-sawed  lumber  as  to 
economy.     Compare  and  give  reasons  for  their  different  shrinking 
qualities.     What  are  the  different  names  by  which  quarter-sawed  lum- 
ber is  known  ? 

10.  Describe  and  demonstrate  the  four  grades  of  lumber  as  they  are 
commonly  graded. 

11.  What  will  be  the  nature  of  the  sound  if  a  dry,  perfect  piece  of 
timber  is  struck  with  the  knuckles  ?     A  wet  or  decaying  piece  ?     What 
does  it  usually  signify  if  there  is  a  great  variety  of  color  in  a  board? 
How  may  decayed  lumber  be  detected  by  its  odor  ?    How  may  in- 
cipient decay  be  stopped  ?    How  may  decay  be  prevented  or  cured  ? 

12.  How  is  lumber  less  than  I"  in  thickness  surveyed  ?    Lumber 
over  1"  in  thickness?     How  are  joists  and  scantlings  measured?     To 
what  lengths  are  logs  sawed  in  the  forest  ?     In  surveying,  where  should 
a  common  board  be  measured?    A  quarter-sawed  board?    Demon- 
strate the  use  of  the  lumber  scale. 

13.  What  should  be  the  qualities  of  a  good  framing  timber?     Of 
timber  for  outside  finish?    To  be  buried?     For  floors?     For  inside 
finish?     For    shingles?     For    siding?     How    long     should    lumber 
be  dried  before  using  ?     How  should  lumber  for  inside  finish  be  cared 
for  while  waiting  for  use?     Describe  the  qualities  and  the  uses  of  the 
following  kinds  of  lumber :  ash,  apple,  basswood,  beech,  birch,  butter- 
nut, cedar,  cherry,  chestnut,  cypress,  elm,  hemlock,  hickory,  locust, 
maple,  mahogany,  oak,  pine,  poplar,  spruce,  sycamore,  walnut. 


CHAPTER  III 

CARE  OF  LUMBER 

14.  The  piling  of  lumber.  —  (A.)   To  the  uninitiated  it 
may  seem  that  the  piling  of  lumber  is  work  upon  which  it 
is  not  necessary  to  expend  much  skill,  but  there  are  few 
operations  in  which  carelessness  or  ignorance  will  cause 
more  loss  to  a  wood-worker. 

(B.)  The  front  end  of  a  lumber  pile  should  be  higher 
than  the  back,  therefore  it  is  a  good  plan  to  locate  it  upon 
ground  which  falls  away  to  the  rear,  or  to  build  the  ways 
which  support  the  pile  so  that  the  water  which  drives 
into  the  pile  will  run  out  at  the  back  end,  and  not  stand 
upon  the  boards,  as  this  will  cause  discolorations. 

15.  Permanent  lumber  ways.  --These  should  be  built 
by  some  method  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  22.     It  is 
not  a  good  plan  to  lay  timbers  upon  the  ground,  as  they 
will  decay  rapidly,  and  there  will  not  be  sufficient  room 
for  air  to  circulate  under  the  pile  to  allow  the  boards  of 
the  lower  courses  to  dry  out  properly.     The  pile  is  also 
apt  to  settle  when  the  frost  comes  out  of  the  ground  in  the 
spring.     Lumber   should   not  be  stacked   above  wet  or 
marshy  ground ;  if  necessary  to  stack  it  where  the  weeds 
are  of  rank  growth,  the  latter  should  be  kept  down. 

The  ways  should  be  built  with  a  solid  foundation,  well 
below  the  frost  line,  though  this  is  rarely  done  except  for 

45 


46 


ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 


permanent  lumber  storage.  This  is  shown  at  a,  Fig.  22, 
in  which  it  will  be  seen  that  the  ways  are  built  to  stand  a 
heavy  load;  the  space  between  the  centers  of  the  ways 
should  be  about  five  feet,  as  multiples  of  this  distance  will 
accommodate  any  length  of  boards. 

16.   To  minimize  the  warping  of  lumber.      -  (A.)    Do 
not  place  lumber  piles  less  than  one  foot  apart,  as  it  is 


FIG.  22. —  PERMANENT  LUMBER  WAYS. 

necessary  that  there  should  be  a  continuous  circulation  of 
air  through  the  pile  in  all  directions.     (See  &,  Fig.  22.) 

(B.)  Lumber  piles  are  usually  four  feet  in  width,  and 
should  be  built  up  with  sticks  of  that  length,  which  are 
placed  between  the  courses  of  boards.  It  is  important 
that  these  be  placed  directly  over  each  other  and  the  ways ; 
otherwise  there  will  be  short  kinks  in  the  boards,  as 
shown  at  c.  It  is  such  carelessness  as  this  that  causes  a 
great  deal  of  loss.  In  piling  very  expensive  lumber,  the 
front  sticks  should  be  laid  so  as  to  project  a  little  over  the 


CARE  OF   LUMBER  47 

course  of  boards  below,  and  the  boards  of  the  course 
above  should  project  the  same  distance  over  the  stick,  in 
order  to  give  the  front  of  the  pile  an  inclination  to  the 
front,  as  shown  at  d,  which  will  allow  most  of  the  rain- 
water to  drop  clear  of  the  boards  below,  instead  of  run- 
ning down  the  front  and  finding  its  way  into  the  pile. 

(C.)  Square  piles  are  sometimes  built,  but  in  these  the 
boards  should  be  laid  with  large  spaces  between  them,  to 
allow  perfect  circulation  of  air.  It  is  obvious  that  hi  a  pile 
of  this  sort,  the  boards  in  the  center  of  the  pile  will  not 
come  in  contact  with  the  air  as  much  as  those  on  the  out- 
side, and  that  consequently,  unless  carefully  piled,  the 
boards  may  be  damaged  by  the  moisture  souring  instead 
of  drying  out,  which  usually  results  in  decay. 

(D.)  During  the  drying  out  process,  all  boards  change 
their  form  more  or  less,  depending  upon  the  shape  of  the 
tree  trunk,  the  kind  and  quality  of  the  wood,  the  part  of 
the  tree  from  which  the  log  was  cut,  as  well  as  its  size  and 
age,  the  relation  of  the  annual  rings  and  medullary  rays 
to  the  surfaces  of  the  board,  the  length  of  time  since  the 
log  was  cut  before  being  made  into  lumber,  whether  it 
had  lain  in  water  for  several  months,  and  the  method  of 
piling.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  in  every  stage  of  pre- 
paring lumber  for  market,  a  high  degree  of  skill  and 
judgment  is  necessary  to  insure  the  best  results. 

The  greatest  deterioration  in  lumber,  after  it  has  been  cut 
and  properly  piled,  is  generally  due  to  the  tendency  to 
warp,  the  cause  of  which  is  indicated  in  Fig.  23,  and  which 
may  to  great  extent  be  minimized  by  skillful  piling.  If  this 
sketch  is  studied  carefully,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  middle 
board  is  thicker  in  the  middle  than  it  is  at  the  edges,  and 


48 


ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 


that  the  curves  of  its  top  and  bottom  sides  are  prac- 
tically uniform.  This  is  because  the  annual  layers  are 
at  nearly  a  right  angle  with  the  sides  of  the  board,  which 
causes  the  board  to  shrink  in  thickness,  and  very  little 
in  width.  This  is  due  to  the  tendency  of  lumber 
to  shrink  around,  or  parallel  with,  the  annual  layers. 

This  tendency  also  causes  the  star 
shakes,  as  at  c,  Fig.  3,  which  is 
because  the  inner  layers  of  the  log, 
being  less  than  the  outside  layers  in 
circumference,  and  less  exposed  to 
the  dry  air,  do  not  shrink  so  fast  nor 
so  much.  This  tendency  is  again 
illustrated  in  Fig.  23,  in  which  it  will 
be  seen  that  because  the  outer 
annual  layers  shrink  faster,  they 
cause  the  outside  of  the  board,  or 
the  part  which  grew  toward  the  outside  of  the  tree,  to 
become  narrower,  and  to  assume  a  concave  shape,  while 
the  side  nearer  the  center  of  the  tree,  or  the  inside  of 
the  board,  becomes  convex.  This  is  also  the  reason  why 
boards  cut  near  the  outside  of  the  log  will  shrink  in  width 
more  than  those  cut  nearer  the  center,  which  shrink  in 
thickness  proportionately  more  than  in  width. 

(E.)  For  the  purpose  of  taking  advantage  of  the  ten- 
dency to  warp,  and  applying  it  to  its  own  remedy,  boards 
should  be  piled  with  the  side  which  grew  nearer  the  center 
of  the  tree  uppermost.  This  will  help  to  correct  the 
tendency  of  the  board  to  warp,  as  explained  above,  as  the 
side  which  would  naturally  assume  the  concave  shape  will 
be  underneath,  and  less  likely  to  warp  than  if  it  were  upper- 


FIG.  23.  —  WARPING  OF 
LUMBER. 


CARE   OF   LUMBER  49 

most.  This  is  not  generally  observed  in  stacking  common 
lumber,  since  it  needs  care  and  judgment  to  do  it  prop- 
erly, but  it  should  be  done  if  valuable  lumber  is  being 
handled. 

Boards  of  practically  the  same  width,  if  less  than  7" 
wide,  are  sometimes  stacked  in  double  courses,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  24,  the  outside  of 
the  boards,  or  the  sides 
which  grew  nearer  the  out- 
side of  the  tree  being  placed 
together,  thus  allowing  the 

inside  of  the  boards,  Or  the      FlG*  24. -LUMBER  PILED  IN  DOUBLE 

sides  which  grew  toward  the 

center  of  the  tree,  to  receive  more  air  than  the  sides  which 
are  placed  together,  and  therefore  to  dry  out  faster,  which 
will  reduce  the  warping  to  a  minimum.  After  a  pile  is 
completed,  it  should  be  covered  with  old  boards  to  protect 
the  top  courses  from  the  weather. 

(F.)  A  pile  of  valuable  lumber  should  be  restacked 
every  six  or  eight  months,  as  the  boards  are  apt  to  become 
discolored  where  the  lumber  sticks  are  placed ;  in  this 
rehandling,  the  warped  boards  should  be  placed  with  the 
concave  side  underneath. 

(G.)  If  lumber  is  cut  in  winter  or  midsummer,  and 
properly  cared  for,  it  is  not  apt  to  be  injured  by  any  rain 
which  may  drive  into  the  pile,  if  there  is  free  circulation  of 
air ;  nor  is  it  so  liable  to  decay  as  lumber  which  is  cut  at 
other  times  of  the  year. 

17.  Weather-dried  lumber.  —  Lumber  which  has  been 
dried  in  the  stack  out  of  doors  is  not  dry  enough  for  use  in 
the  manufacture  of  inside  finish  or  furniture,  as  it  has 

KING'S  WOODWORK  —  4 


50  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

dried  out  only  to  the  degree  of  moisture  in  the  outside  air. 
If  it  is  then  worked  up  and  placed  in  an  artificially  heated 
house,  the  heat  will  cause  more  moisture  to  evaporate, 
the  wood  to  shrink,  and  the  joints  to  open.  For  material 
to  be  used  in  the  frames  of  buildings,  in  wagons,  or  in 
other  places  where  the  greatest  possible  strength  is  re- 
quired, not  less  than  two  years  weather-drying  is  pre- 
ferred, as  the  material  retains  its  full  strength. 

18.  Kiln-dried  lumber.  —  Lumber  for  furniture  or  for 
inside  finish  should  be  seasoned  by  the  process  known  as 
"  kiln-drying."     This  means  that  lumber  is  exposed  to  a 
temperature  of  from  120°  to  200°  F.  by  which  the  moisture 
is  extracted  and   evaporated.     Lumber   thus   treated   is 
apt  to  be  more  or  less  weakened  by  the  action  of  the  heat 
upon  the  fibers  of  the  wood,  which  causes  thousands  of 
minute  fractures,  and  in  many  cases  the  life  and  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  lumber  is  destroyed.     The  results  of  kiln- 
drying  depend  largely  upon  the  kiln,  and  upon  the  skill 
with  which  the  lumber  is  piled,  the  heat  applied,  and  the 
rapidity  of  evaporation  of  the  moisture  regulated. 

For  these  reasons,  much  kiln-dried  lumber  is  suitable 
for  use  where  but  little  strength  is  required  and  where 
the  color  and  the  grain  are  the  important  points  to 
consider. 

19.  Moist  air  kilns.  —  (A.)    There  are  two  types  of 
dry  kilns  in  common  use:  the  natural  draft,  or  moist  air, 
kilns,  and  the  induced  draft  kilns.     These  two  types  are 
made  by  different  manufacturers,  nearly  all  of  whom  use 
certain  devices  of  which  they  control  the  patents,  and 
which  constitute  the  chief  difference  between  their  kiln 
and  those  made  by  other  manufacturers. 


CARE   OF   LUMBER  51 

(B.)  The  moist  air  -kilns  are  so  constructed  as  to 
allow  the  freest  possible  circulation  of  the  heated  air, 
and  to  provide  opportunities  for  the  moisture  to  be 
expelled  in  accordance  with  certain  natural  laws,  which 
results  are  obtained  by  a  carefully  planned  and  managed 
system  of  ventilation.  These  kilns  operate  upon  the 
principle  that  heated  air  circulating  naturally  through 
lumber  will  become  charged  to  a  much  greater  degree  with 
moisture  than  if  it  were  forced  through  rapidly,  as  in  the 
induced  draft  kilns.  Thus,  heated  air  by  passing  slowly 
through  a  pile  of  lumber  may  become  charged  with  mois- 
ture nearly  to  the  dew  point. 

If  the  humidity  of  the  heated  air  is  maintained  at  that 
point,  by  allowing  the  moisture  to  pass  out  as  it  accu- 
mulates, with  a  small  amount  of  heated  air,  which  is 
replaced  with  fresh  air  from  the  outside,  it  is  claimed  that 
the  boards  will  dry  out  from  their  centers.  (C.)  As  the 
warm,  moist  air  which  circulates  through  the  pile  will 
keep  the  outsides  of  the  boards  moist,  it  will  prevent  case 
hardening,  or  the  hardening  of  the  outsides  of  the  boards. 
This  is  caused  by  very  warm  dry  air,  which  "  cooks," 
or  closes  the  pores  of  the  surface  of  the  boards,  and  this 
prevents  the  outsides  from  shrinking,  while  the  insides 
will  be  so  badly  checked  and  discolored  as  to  destroy  the 
boards. 

After  the  moisture  is  all  out  of  the  lumber,  that  held  in 
suspension  will  gradually  pass  out  of  the  kiln,  and  the  air 

k:~iside  will  become  perfectly  dry. 
(D.)    It  is  claimed  that   all  kinds  of  lumber  in  com- 
lon  use  may  be   put   into    this   type   of   kiln  perfectly 
reen,   except   oak   and   other  very  hard  woods,   which 


52  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

should  have  at  least  thirty  days'  drying  under  good  dry- 
ing conditions  for  each  inch  in  thickness.  It  is  also  claimed 
that  the  moist  air  kiln  is  simply  weather  drying  accel- 
erated, —  the  moisture  being  thoroughly  extracted  from  the 
lumber,  the  result  being  the  same  as  though  it  were  stacked 
out  of  doors  for  several  years,  —  and  that  the  lumber  has 
lost  none  of  its  strength,  elasticity,  or  characteristic  color. 

(E.)  This  method  sometimes  is  applied  by  steam  pipes 
extending  between  each  course  of  boards,  and  in  this 
way  the  lumber  is  dried  out  very  rapidly.  Lumber  used 
in  this  sort  of  kiln  should  be  thoroughly  weather-dried,  or 
otherwise  the  high  temperature  will  cause  it  to  check 
badly.  In  certain  forms  of  these  kilns,  the  lumber  is 
saturated  with  live  steam  after  it  is  piled  in  the  kiln,  before 
the  heat  is  turned  on. 

20.  Induced  draft  kilns.  —  (A.)  This  system  of  kiln- 
drying  consists  of  a  power-driven  fan,  which  forces  the 
heated  air  at  a  high  rate  of  speed  through  the  spaces  be- 
tween and  around  the  lumber  piled  in  the  chamber. 

(B).  Manufacturers  have  different  devices  for  extract- 
ing the  moisture  from  the  air  after  it  has  passed  through 
the  lumber  piles.  It  may  be  passed  over  condensing  plates, 
or  through  coils  of  pipes  in  which  cold  water  is  continually 
circulating,  both  of  these  devices  being  for  the  purpose  of 
extracting  the  moisture  from  the  heated  air.  If  the 
moisture  is  separated  from  the  air  by  condensation,  it  runs 
away,  but  if  not,  a  certain  per  cent  of  the  heated  air  is 
expelled  out  of  doors,  being  replaced  by  fresh  air.  The 
air  in  the  kiln,  somewhat  cooled  from  contact  with  these 
cooled  surfaces,  is  returned  to  the  heater,  reheated,  and 
again  forced  through  the  kiln,  which  operation  is  repeated 


CARE  OF  LUMBER  53 

continuously  and  automatically.  Thus  the  heated  air 
becomes  charged  with  a  small  percentage  of  moisture  each 
time  it  passes  through  the  kiln  chamber ;  this  moisture  is 
extracted  and  the  air  is  again  heated  before  beginning 
another  circuit,  instead  of  slow  circulation  which  allows 
the  heated  air  to  become  saturated  with  moisture  be- 
fore it  is  discharged,  as  in  the  moist  air  kiln. 

The  induced  draft  dry  kiln  requires  quite  an  expensive 
equipment,  as  the  blower  and  the  appliance  which  drive 
it  are  necessary  in  addition  to  the  equipment  of  the  kiln 
itself,  which  would  be  similar  in  either  of  the  types  of  kiln 
described.  Lumber  to  be  dried  in  this  form  of  kiln  must 
be  well  weather-dried  before  it  is  exposed  to  the  high 
temperature  of  the  kiln. 

21.  Results  of  the  two  systems.  —  While  it  is  not  the 
province  of  this  book  to  pass  judgment  upon  the  results 
of  the  different  methods  or  forms  of  dry  kilns,  it  is  obvious 
that  the  induced  draft  kiln  is  the  more  expensive  to  oper- 
ate, as  the  expense  of  running  the  blower  is  avoided  in 
the  moist  air  system.     In  this  latter  type  of  kiln  the  steam 
simply  passes  through  the  pipes,  the  condensation  being 
returned  to  the  boiler  to  be  reheated,  so  the  only  expense 
is  that  of  maintaining  the  fire  to  keep  up  a  low  pressure. 
In  the  daytime,  or  while  the  engine  which  furnishes  the 
power  for  the  plant  is  running,  the  kilns  of  either  type  may 
be  heated  by  exhaust  steam. 

Many  users  of  one  or  both  systems  seem  satisfied  with 
the  results  obtained  from  either,  while  others  are  decided 
in  their  preference. 

22.  Filling   a  kiln.  -  -  In  doing  this,  care  should   be 
used  that  there  is  plenty  of  room  for  the  air  to  circulate 


54  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

freely  around  and  through  the  pile  —  not  less  than  3' 
between  the  edges  of  the  boards  horizontally  and  vertically, 
and  one  foot  between  the  lumber  and  the  wall  or  ad  j  acent  pile. 
Each  course  of  boards  should  be  so  planned  as  to  bring  the 
same  width  over  those  of  the  course  below,  if  possible,  in 
order  to  keep  a  vertical  air  space  through  the  pile.  In 
some  cases  the  kiln  is  filled  by  placing  the  boards  edgeways. 

23.  Length  of  time  lumber  should  be  left  in  the  kiln.  - 
No  one  should  undertake  to  operate  a  kiln  unless  he 
understands  perfectly  the  particular  make  of  the  kiln  that 
he  is  handling,  for  if  the  ventilation  is  not  correctly  regu- 
lated, the  entire  charge  of  the  kiln  may  become  mildewed, 
casehardened,    checked,    discolored,    or   dried    unevenly. 
No  rule  can  be  given  for  the  time  which  lumber  should  be 
left  in  the  kiln,  as  it  depends  upon  the  condition  of  the 
lumber,   temperature,   kind   of  lumber,   dimensions,   and 
ventilation.      Generally  speaking,  if  the  kiln  is  properly 
constructed    and    operated,  from    two  to  four   days  for 
each  inch  in  thickness  of  soft  wood,  and  from  two  to 
three  times  as  long,  at  a   lower  temperature,  for  hard 
wood,  is  usually  enough  to  extract  the  moisture.     It  is, 
however,  best  to  allow  the  lumber  to  stay  in  the  kiln,  at 
a  moderate  temperature,  from  three  days  to  two  weeks 
after  the  moisture  is  extracted,  in  order  to  harden  and 
cook  the  solids  of  the  sap,  as  by  so  doing  the  lumber  is 
not  so  liable  to  be  influenced  by  moisture  in  the  future; 
this  is  the  effect  that  long  weather-drying  accomplishes. 

24.  The  care  of  kiln-dried  lumber.  —  It  is  a  common 
mistake  to  allow  lumber  to  lie  in  an  open  shed  or  other 
place  where  it  will  absorb  moisture  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  still  call  it  kiln-dried.      Lumber  of  this  sort  should 


CARE  OF  LUMBER  55 

be  kept  in  a  place  where  heat  can  be  applied  in  damp 
weather,  and  should  be  stacked  in  a  close,  compact  pile, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  air  from  coming  in  contact  with  it. 

25.  Steaming  wood.  —  This  process  makes  wood  pliable, 
and  adds  to  its  durability  by  destroying  the  germs  which 
may  cause  decay;    it  also  neutralizes,  to  a  great  extent, 
the  effect  of  the  presence  of  sap.     Steaming  or  immersing 
wood  in  boiling  water  minimizes  its  tendency  to  shrink 
and  swell,  and  wood  thus  treated  is  not  so  apt  to  check 
in  seasoning.     Steamed  wood  loses  some  of  its  original 
strength  on  account  of  the  effect  of  the  high  temperature 
upon  the  fibers. 

26.  Preserving  wood.  —  In  order  to  preserve  wood,  it 
is  sometimes  treated  with  creosote  or  other  chemicals, 
which  are  forced  into  the  wood  at  a  sufficient  pressure  to 
cause   them   to    permeate   the   wood    thoroughly.     This 
treatment  enables  the  wood  to  resist  better  the  elements 
and  to  keep  away  insects,  which  do  a  great  deal  of  damage, 
frequently  honeycombing  the  wood  with  holes,  with  little 
or  no  evidence  of  their  presence  upon  the  outside. 

SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

14.  What  arc  some  of  the  results  of  piling  lumber  carelessly  ?     Should 
the  back  and  the  front  of  the  lumber  pile  be  upon  the  same  level? 
Why? 

15.  How  should  lumber  ways  be  built  ?     What  kind  of  places  should 
be  avoided  in  seeking  a  location  for  lumber  piles? 

16.  Should  the  piles  be  placed  close  to  each  other?     How  wide 
should  the  piles  be  made?    What  is  the  objection  to  a  square  pile? 
How  thick  should  the  lumber  sticks  be  ?     How  should  they  be  placed  ? 
What  is  the  result  if  they  are  not  carefully  placed  ?     How  should  the 
sticks  and  the  ends  of  the  boards  be  placed  at  the  front  of  the  pile? 


56  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWOOK 

Why?  What  causes  lumber  to  warp?  Describe  methods  of  piling 
lumber  to  minimize  warping.  Should  a  lumber  pile  be  allowed  to  stand 
indefinitely?  What  is  the  proper  time  to  cut  lumber ?  Does  it  injure 
lumber  to  allow  a  little  rain  to  beat  into  the  pile  ? 

17.  What  is  meant  by  weather-dried  lumber?     Why  is  it  not  suit- 
able for  furniture  and  for  inside  finish  ?     How  is  this  remedied  ?    For 
what  purposes  is  weather-dried  lumber  the  best? 

18.  What  is  the  chief  objection  to  kiln-drying  lumber? 

19.  What  are  the  two  methods  of  kiln-drying?     Describe  the  prin- 
ciple of  the  moist  air  kiln.     What  is  claimed  of  it  ?    How  should  hard 
wood  lumber  be  treated  before  being  kiln-dried  ? 

20.  Describe  the  induced  draft  system.     What  devices  are  used  to 
extract  the  moisture  from  the  heated  air  ?     What  are  the  main  points 
of  difference  between  the  two  systems? 

21.  What  is  the  difference  in  the  condition  of  lumber  which  may  be 
put  in  the  two  forms  of  kilns  ?     Which  is  the  more  expensive  system  to 
install  and  operate  ?    How  do  users  of  the  two  systems  compare  them  ? 

22.  How  should  lumber  be  stacked  in  the  kiln? 

23.  How  long  should  lumber  generally  remain  in  the  kiln  to  allow 
the  moisture  to  be  extracted?     How  long  to  insure  most  permanent 
results? 

24.  How  should  kiln-dried  lumber  be  cared  for? 

25.  What  is  the  effect  of  steaming  wood? 

26.  How  is  wood  sometimes  treated  to  preserve  it  from  the  elements 
and  from  insects  ? 


CHAPTER  IV 
TOOLS 

27.  How  to  purchase  tools.  —  (A.)   The  quality  of  the 
tools  used  by  the  mechanic  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 
They  should  be  selected  carefully,  and  while  it  is  the 
poorest  economy  to  buy  anything  but  the  best,  the  best 
are  not  necessarily  the  most  finely  finished. 

(B.)  In  purchasing  tools,  it  is  well  to  remember  that 
those  made  especially  for  some  dealer,  and  bearing  his 
name,  if  sold  for  a  less  price  than  the  best,  are  usually  not 
of  the  highest  grade,  and  should  be  shunned.  It  is  wisest 
to  buy  standard  makes,  examining  them  carefully  to  be 
sure  that  there  are  no  visible  defects.  The  temper  of 
steel  may  be  discovered  only  by  use,  and  any  defects  in 
the  best  grades  of  tools  is  made  good  upon  complaint  to 
the  dealer. 

28.  Benches.  —  (A.)    Figure  25  shows  the  type  of  bench 
used  in  the  most  up-to-date  carpenter  and  cabinet  shops, 
while  that  used  by  carpenters  for  ordinary  work  usually  is 
of  the  type  shown  in  Fig.  26. 

(B.)  In  many  manual- training  schools,  the  benches  are 
of  the  former  type,  and  in  the  most  completely  equipped 
schools,  are  fitted  with  locked  drawers  and  closets  for  the 
reception  of  tools,  not  only  to  keep  the  latter  in  condition 
for  use,  but  to  insure  that  the  set  of  tools  is  complete,  and 
to  be  able  to  place  the  responsibility  for  damage  or  loss. 

57 


58 


ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 


FIG.  25.  —  MANUAL-TRAINING  BENCH. 


FIG.  ~6.  — CARPENTER'S  BENCH. 


TOOLS 


59 


(C.)  The  vises  should  be  of  the  modern,  quick  action 
design,  which,  on  account  of  the  rapidity  with  which  they 
work,  are  superseding  the  old-fashioned  wooden  and  iron 
screw  vises. 


/~m  iffrtii  1 1 1 1 1 


NQ"70        9 


I        9 


i  M  1 1 1 


8 


I    ,    Z 


FIG.  27.  —  TWO-FOOT,  FOUR-FOLD  RULE. 

29.  Rules.  —  Tke  two-foot,  four-fold  rule  (Fig.  27)  is 
the  one  generally  used  by  carpenters.  It  is  made  of  dif- 
ferent grades,  the  more  expensive  makes 
being  divided  into  16ths,  8ths,  lOths,  and 
12ths,  and  having  the  i",  i",  f",  V,  |", 
1",  li",  and  3"  scales  upon  them. 
Although  the  cheaper  rule  is  just  as  ac- 
curate, it  is  divided  usually  into  8ths  and 
IGths  only.  The  form  of  rule  shown  in 
Fig.  28  is  becoming  quite  popular,  as  it 
is  longer.  Since  rules  are  easily  lost  or 
broken,  many  workmen  have  a  good  rule 
for  scaling,  and  a  cheaper  one  for  gen- 
eral work. 

30.   The  try-square  (A.)  consists  of  the 
beam    (Fig.    29,    a),   which    is    generally  of   metal-lined 
wood,  and  the  blade  (6),  which  is  a  thin  piece  of  steel. 

(B.)    Too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  the  selec- 
tion of  this  tool,  as  one  which  is  not  perfectly  true  may 


FIG.  28.  —  ZIGZAG 
RULE. 


60 


ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 


FIG.  29. — -POSITION  OF  TRY-SQUARE  IN  SQUARING  AN  EDGE. 


FIG.  30.  —  USE  OF  Two   TRY-SQUARES  TO  SEE  IF  PIECE  OF  WOOD  is  "  OUT 

OF  WIND." 

cause  much  trouble.  To  test  a  square,  hold  the  beam 
against  a  perfectly  straight  and  square  edge  of  a  board 
which  is  wide  enough  to  allow  a  knife  line  to  be  made  the 


TOOLS 


61 


entire  length  of  the  blade.  Then  turn  the  square  over, 
the  other  side  up,  and,  holding  the  beam  against  the  same 
edge,  move  the  blade  to  the  line.  If  the  jointed  edge 
of  the  board  and  the  square  are  perfectly  accurate,  the 
knife  line  and  the  edge  of  the  board  will  perfectly  coincide. 

(C.)  The  use  of  this 
tool  in  squaring  an 
edge  is  shown  in  Fig. 
29.  The  piece  being 
squared  should  be  in 
such  a  position  that 
the  try-square  will  be 
between  the  eye  and 
the  light;  in  this  way, 
the  slightest  inaccu- 
racy may  be  detected. 
In  Fig.  31  is  shown 
the  position  of  the 
try-square  when  used 
to  make  a  line  by  the 
edge  of  the  blade. 
If  working  from  the 
edge  indicated,  hold 

the  beam  against  the  edge  with  the  thumb,  and  at  the 
same  time  hold  the  blade  down  with  one  or  two  fingers, 
using  the  others  to  steady  the  square  in  its  place  upon 
the  board.  (D.)  Two  try-squares  may  be  used  to  see  if 
a  piece  of  wood  is  "  out  of  wind  "  (i  sounded  as  in  kind) 
by  the  method  indicated  in  Fig.  30. 

Two  pieces  of  wood  known  as  winding  sticks,  of  ex- 
actly the  same  width  and  perfectly  parallel,  are  often 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


used  in  manual-training  schools  for  this  purpose;  they 
are  rarely  used  in  a  shop,  however,  as  a  workman  gen- 
erally will  use  two  steel  squares  if  the  piece  is  too  large 
to  be  sighted  accurately  without  some  aid  of  this  sort. 


FIG.  32. —  STEEL,  on  FRAMING,  SQUARE. 

31.  The  steel,  or  framing,  square  (Fig.  32)  is  often 
used  as  a  try-square  upon  large  work,  though  its  most  im- 
portant use  is  in  framing,  or  roof  construction.  It  is  indis- 
pensable in  finding  the  lengths  and  the  angles  of  rafters, 

braces,  etc.  Its  use  for  this 
purpose  will  be  explained 
in  "  Constructive  Carpen- 
try." The  long  side  of  the 
framing  square  is  known  as 
the  "  blade,"  and  the  short 
side  as  the  "  tongue." 

32.  The  bevel  (Fig.  33) 
may  be  set  for  use  in  mark- 
ing and  testing  any  angle, 
in  the  same  manner  that 
the  try-square  is  used  upon 
rectangular  work.  The 
sketch  shows  the  bevel  and  the  steel  square  in  position  for 
setting  the  bevel  at  an  angle  of  45°.  It  will  be  noticed 
that  the  blade  of  the  bevel  rests  upon  the  same  figures 
upon  both  the  blade  and  the  tongue  of  the  square. 


FIG.  33.  —  BEVEL  AND  STEEL  SQUARE. 
The  bevel  is  set  at  an  angle  of  45°. 


TOOLS 


63 


FIG.  34.  —  MARKING  GAUGE. 

a,  the  head;    66,  the  stick;  c,  the  thumb- 
screw ;  d,  the  point. 


33.  The  gauge  (A.),  Fig.  34,  is  for  the  purpose  of  mak- 
ing lines  parallel  to  the  face  or  working  side  or  edge. 
Usually  it  is  made  in  four 

pieces^:  the  "  head "  (a), 
which  is  held  against  the  face 
side  or  edge ;  the  "  stick  " 
(bb),  upon  which  the  head 
moves;  the  " thumbscrew" 
(c),  which  holds  the  head 
firmly  in  its  position  upon 
the  stick;  and  the  "point" 
(d),  which  makes  the  desired 
mark  upon  the  wood. 

(B.)  A  rule  should  be  used  in  setting  the  gauge,  unless 
one  is  certain  that  the  point  is  located  accurately  with 
regard  to  the  graduations  upon  the  stick. 

The  point  should  be  sharpened  to  work  with  either  a 
push  or  pull  cut,  as  at  e. 

(C.)  The  gauge  should  be  grasped  as  shown  in  Fig.  35, 
and  generally  used  with  a  push,  though  it  is  occasionally 
pulled  toward  the  worker.  One  should  always  work  from 
the  face  side  of  the  piece. 

If  the  point  enters  the  wood  too  deeply,  it  may  be  set 
back,  or  the  gauge  carried  on  the  corner  of  the  stick  as  indi- 
cated, which  will  govern  the  depth  of  the  cut.  Do  not  use 
a  dull  gauge,  or  one  with  a  round  point  like  a  pencil,  as  it 
will  tear  the  wood,  instead  of  making  a  clean  cut  or  scratch. 

34.  The  hammer  (A.)  is  used  .by  the  average  wood- 
worker more   than   any   other   tool.     The   "  face "  (Fig. 
36,  a)  and  the  "  claws  "  (b)  should  be  tempered  care- 
fully, as  they  will  either  bruise  or  bend  if  too  soft,  or 


64 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


break  if  too  hard.  The  eye  (c)  is  made  longer  than  it  is 
wide,  to  prevent  the  head  from  turning  on  the  handle, 
and  larger  at  the  outside  of  the  head  than  it  is  at  the  neck, 


FIG.  35.  —  MARKING  GAUGE  IN  USE. 


so  that  the  handle  may  be  firmly  wedged  in  the  eye  or 
socket.  The  neck  (d),  by  extending  upon  the  handle  as  it 
does,  adds  much  to  the  strength  of  the  connection. 


FIG.  36.  — CLAW  HAMMER. 

a,  thefac'1;    fe,  the  claws;    c,  the  eye;    d,  the  neck;    e,  grain  of  neck. 

The  handle  should  be  of  young,  tough,  straight-grained 
hickory,  elliptical  in  section,  and  of  a  size  to  be  grasped 
easily. 


TOOLS  65 

The  grain  should  be  perfectly  straight  at  the  neck,  and 
the  annual  layers  should  show  lengthwise  of  the  ellipse  at 
the  end,  as  at  e.  The  handle  should  be  fitted  and  wedged, 
or  "  hung  "  in  such  a  way  that  a  nail  may  be  driven  home 
in  a  flat  surface  without  the  knuckles  striking,  which 
means  that  the  center  of  the  handle  should  be  about  paral- 
lel with  the  flat  surface.  A  line  lengthwise  of  the  head 
through  the  eye  should  exactly  coincide  with  the  long,  or 
major,  axis  of  the  ellipse  at  the  end  of  the  handle,  as  at  gg, 
or  pounded  fingers  will  result. 

The  bell-faced  hammer  is  to  be  preferred  to  the  flat- 
faced  type,  as  it  will  not  mar  the  wood  so  badly  if  the  nail  is 
missed,  though  more  skill  is  required  to  use  it.  Upon  rough 
work,  the  bell-faced  hammer  will  sink  the  nail  beneath  the 
surface  without  bruising  the  wood  badly.  Upon  inside  work, 
the  nails  should  be  sunk  beneath  the  surface  with  a  nail  set. 

(B.)  In  nailing,  the  young  workman  should  acquire  the 
habit  of  grasping  the  handle  of  the  hammer  at  the  end, 
as  this  will  give  greater  force  to  the 
blow.  Upon  light  work,  the  hand 
will  naturally  slip  a  little  toward 
the  head  Nails  should  generally 
be  driven  in  a  slanting  direction, 
as  they  hold  better  than  if  driven 
straight.  When  nails  are  driven  as 
shown  at  a,  Fig.  37,  it  is  called  FIG  37 

"  toenailing,"  and  when  driven  suffi-      fli  toenaiiing:  6.  tacking, 
ciently  to  hold,  but  not  driven  home, 
as  at  b,  they  are  said  to  be  "tacked."      Nails  are  driven 
this  way  when  they  are  to  be  pulled  out  again,  as  in  stay 
laths,  and  in  fastening  pieces  temporarily. 
KING'S  WOODWORK  —  5 


66 


ELEMENTS  OF   WOODWORK 


In  forcing  matched  boards  together,  do  not  pound 
directly  upon  the  tongue  edge  of  the  board,  but  upon  a 
waste  piece  of  the  same  material,  as  the  tongue  will  be 

bruised  so  that  the 
next  board  will  not 
form  a  good  joint. 
Care  should  be  used 
that  the  hammer 
does  not  strike  the 
edge  of  the  board 
when  the  nail  is 
driven  home.  To 
guard  against  this,  a 
nail  set  should  be 
used  to  sink  the 
head  beneath  the  sur- 
face, as  in  Fig.  38,  so 
that  the  next  board 
will  come  to  its  place 
without  trouble. 
This  is  called  "  blind 
nailing." 

35.     The    hatchet 
(A.)  is  used  for  hew- 
ing light  work,  for  shingling,  and  as  a  heavy  hammer, 
though  the  face  is  rarely  tempered  to  stand  very  heavy 
usage  (Fig.  39,  a). 

(B.)  A  hand  axe,  or  broad  hatchet  (Fig.  39,  6),  usually 
is  a  better  grade  of  tool  than  the  hatchet,  and  as  it  is  of 
greater  weight,  is  better  adapted  for  heavy  work.  A 
hatchet  or  hand  axe  for  general  use  should  be  sharpened 


FIG.  38.  —  BLIND  NAILING  AND  USE  OF  A  NAIL 

SET. 


TOOLS 


67 


FlG.  39.  —  o,  hatchet;  6,  hand  axe. 
(For  explanation,  see  text.) 


as  at  c;  but  for  hewing  only,  an  edge  like  d  will  give  the 

best  results. 

36.   The  mallet.  -  -  This  tool  should  be  used  upon  chisel 

handles,   as   a   hammer 

will  destroy  the  handle 

in   a   very   short   time. 

Mallets     are     of     two 

shapes,  the  square-faced 

(Fig.    40,    a)    and    the 

round    mallet     (6),    the 

latter    being    preferred 

by  many  workmen  as  it 

will  always  strike  a  fair  blow  upon  the  chisel  handle,  while 

the  square-faced  mallet  sometimes  will  miss,  and  inflict  a 

painful  blow  upon  the  hand,.      In  general,  the  handle  of 

a  square-faced  mallet  is  round, 
which  allows  the  mallet  to  turn 
in  the  hand  ;  if  the  handle  were 
made  elliptical,  like  a  hammer 
handle,  there  would  be  less 
likelihood  of  missing  the  chisel. 
37.  Saws.  —  (A.)  The  saws 
used  by  the  carpenter  are  for 
cutting  parallel  with,  or  across, 
the  grain,  or  a  combination  of 

fag  tWO,  and     all    are    COmpOSed 

of  two  parts,  the  " handle"  and  the  "  blade." 

The  teeth  of  a  ripsaw  (Fig.  41,  A)  are  suitable  for  sawing 
in  a  direction  parallel  with  the  general  direction  of  the 
grain.  The  points  of  different  saws  may  be  from  one 
third  to  one  seventh  of  an  inch  apart,  and  form  a  series  of 


FIG.  40.  —  MALLETS. 
a,  square-faced  mallet ;  6,  round  mallet. 


68 


ELEMENTS  OF   WOODWORK 


W 

I 


FIG.  41,   'A.    RIPSAW. 

dd,  view  and  section  of  setting  of  teeth. 


chisels,  the  cutting  edges  of  which  are  filed  so  that  they 
are  at  right  angles  to  the  sides  of  the  blade.  In  action, 
the  saw  is  pushed  against  the  wood,  each  tooth  cutting 

a  little  deeper  than 
the  one  preceding  it. 
The  cutting-off 
saw  (Fig.  41,  B)  has 
from  six  to  twelve 
knife-pointed  teeth 
to  an  inch,  the  cut- 
ting edges  being 
parallel  to  the  sides 
of  the  blade,  and 
filed  so  that  the 
point  of  the  tooth 
is  upon  the  side 
which  is  set  beyond 
the  side  of  the  blade. 
In  all  except  the 
finest  saws,  the 
teeth  are  set;  that 
is,  the  points  are 
bent  a  very  little  in 
such  a  way  as  to 
make  the  cut  wider 
than  the  thickness 
of  the  blade,  so  that 
the  saw  may  cut 
through  the  wood 


FIG.  41,  B.    CUTTING-OFF  SAW. 


V* 


FIG.  41,  C.    COMPASS,  OR  KEYHOLE,  SAW. 


FIG.  41.  —  SAWS. 
(In  each  of  the  three  varieties  of  sawteeth   shown  in         .    , 

Fig.  41,  the  set  of  the  teeth  is  exaggerated.)  WltllOUt       binding, 

which  it  could  not 


TOOLS  69 

do  if  the  cut  were  the  same  thickness  as  the  blade.  Tha 
blades  of  all  high  grade  saws  are  thinner  upon  the  back  than 
upon  the  cutting  edge,  but  if  the  saw  is  to  be  used  upon  the 
finest  work,  this  difference  in  the  thickness  of  the  two  edges 
of  the  blade  is  supposed  to  make  the  setting  of  the  saw  un- 
necessary. For  general  work,  it  will  be  found  that  the  saw 
will  be  much  more  efficient  if  it  is  given  a  set  adapted  to 
the  size  of  the  teeth,  or  to  the  nature  of  the  work  it  is  ex- 
pected to  do. 

The  compass,  or  keyhole,  saw  (Fig.  41,  C)  is  used  where 
it  is  necessary  that  the  saw  should  cut  both  with  and  across 
the  grain.  It  is  used  to  start  the  cut  for  a  rip-  or  cutting- 
off  saw,  when  a  cut  has  to  be  made  in  the  surface  of  a 
board.  This  saw  is  used  also  in  many  places  where  it  is 
not  practicable  to  use  a  larger  saw,  and  for  sawing  curves. 
In  order  to  allow  it  to  cut  around  curves  easily,  the  face,  or 
cutting  edge,  is  considerably  thicker  than  the  back,  and 
the  blade  is  made  of  soft  metal.  It  may  then  be  given 
a  heavy  set,  so  that  it  will  bend  instead  of  breaking  or 
kinking,  as  it  would  be  liable  to  do  from  the  nature  of  its 
work  if  made  of  tempered  steel. 

Some  carpenters  working  upon  job  work,  where  it  is 
desirable  to  carry  as  few  tools  as  possible,  have  a  narrow 
20"  or  22"  saw  sharpened  like 
a  compass  saw,  which  for 
ordinary  work  is  quite  satis- 
factory as  either  a  cutting-off 
or  a  ripsaw,  thus  making 

FIG.  42.  —  BACKSAW. 

another  saw  unnecessary. 

The  hacksaw  (Fig.  42)  is  used  upon  fine  work;  it  is 
filed  like  a  cutting-off  saw,  but  the  teeth  have  rather 


70  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

more  hook,  and  it  often  has  as  many  as  fifteen  teeth  to  the 
inch,  though  a  twelve-tooth  saw  is  as  fine  as  is  generally 
used.  The  thick  back  is  to  stiffen  the  blade  of  the  saw, 
and  if  the  latter  becomes  sprung,  a  light  blow  upon  the 
back,  as  though  to  drive  it  upon  the  blade,  will  usually 
straighten  it. 

(B.)  In  buying  a  saw,  select  one  which  is  thicker  upon 
the  cutting  edge  than  upon  the  back ;  this  allows  the  saw 
to  be  used  upon  very  fine  work  with  little  or  no  setting. 
See  that  the  handle  fits  the  hand,  and  that  the  saw  hangs  to 
suit,  or  "  feels  right."  This  is  a  matter  concerning  the 
balance  and  the  weight  of  the  tool,  which  cannot  be  de- 
scribed, but  which  any  one  accustomed  to  using  tools  will 
miss  if  a  tool  not  possessing  this  quality  is  placed  in  his  hand. 

A  saw  blade,  unless  very  short  and  thick,  should  bend 
so  that  the  point  may  be  put  through  the  handle,  and 
upon  being  released,  instantly  resume  its  shape.  It  should 
bend  evenly  in  proportion  to  the  width  and  the  gauge  of 
the  saw,  and  should  be  as  thin  as  the  stiffness  of  the  blade 
will  permit,  as  a  saw  of  this  sort  cuts  less  wood,  and  there- 
fore runs  with  less  resistance.  A  compass  saw,  being 
softer,  is  not  expected  to  stand  the  above  test. 

A  26"  or  a  28"  blade  is  best  for  a  heavy  rip  or  cutting- 
off  saw  to  be  used  upon  coarse  work;  but  for  fine  work, 
a  22"  blade,  commonly  known  as  a  "  panel  saw,"  is  a  con- 
venient size,  though  a  20"  or  a  24"  blade  is  preferred  by 
many  workmen. 

(C.)  A  hard  saw  is  best  for  fine  work,  but  for  general  work 
most  workmen  prefer  a  saw  of  medium  hardness,  as  the 
teeth  of  a  hard  saw  are  apt  to  break  in  setting,  and  its 
edge,  if  it  comes  in  contact  with  metal,  requires  filing  just 


TOOLS 


71 


about  as  quickly 
as  that  of  a  soft 
saw,  and  is  much 
more  difficult  to 
sharpen.  If  always 
filed  by  an  expert 
filer,  a  hard  saw  is 
superior  in  every 
way  to  any  other. 
(D.)  The  handle 
of  the  saw  should 
be  grasped  firmly 
by  three  fingers, 
as  in  Fig.  43,  with 
the  forefinger  ex- 
tended along  the 


FIG.  43.  — USE  OF  THE  SAW. 
Showing  the  method  of  using  a  try-square  to  insure  accuracy. 


72 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


FIG.  44.  —  RESET    SAW 
HANDLE. 


side,  thus  making  more  room  for  the  three  fingers,  and 
giving  better  control  of  the  saw.  Very  little  strength 
should  be  used  in  forcing  a  fine  saw 
to  cut,  as  its  own  weight  generally  is 
sufficient ;  if  the  saw  is  forced,  it  will 
not  run  smoothly,  but  will  bind,  and 
if  a  thin  board  is  being  worked,  it  is 
apt  to  split.  The  saw  should  be  used 
from  the  face  side  of  the  material,  so 
that  any  splinters  or  variation  will  be  upon  the  back  side 
and  out  of  sight. 

(E.)  It  is  the  custom  of  some  carpenters  to  reset  the 
handles  of  their  heavy  saws  by  drilling  holes  through  the 
blade  so  that  the  handle  may  be  fastened  as  close  to 
the  cutting  edge  as  possible,  as  in  Fig.  44.  This  brings  the 
force  of  the  stroke  nearer  the  direct  line  of  the  cut,  which 
obviously  allows  a  more  economical  application  of  force. 
Never  leave  a  saw  in  a  cut,  for  if  the  piece  of  wood  falls  off 
the  trestles,  the  saw  is  apt  to  be  broken.  (Saw-filing  will 
be  discussed  later.) 

38.  The  knife  blade  used  by  the  wood-worker  for  gen- 
eral work  is  similar  to  that  shown  in  ^^          _^ 
Fig.  45,  at  A.     That  shown  at  B  is  the     !  ^ 

form  of  blade  in  most  common  use  in 
manual-training  schools,  as  it  is  better 
adapted  for  whittling,  its  shape  assist- 
ing the  student  to  some  extent  to  pre- 
vent the  knife  from  following  the  grain. 

39.  Planes.  —  (A.)  The  plane  is  the 

most   complex,    as  well  as  *  one  of  the  most    important, 
tools  which  the  wood-worker  uses,  and  a  high  grade  of 


FIG.  45. — KNIFE  BLADES. 

A,  used  by  wood -worker; 
B,  used  in  manual-training 
schools. 


TOOLS 


73 


skill  is  necessary  to  keep  it  in  order,  as  well  as  to  use  it 
properly. 

(B.)  The  only  plane  in  use  until  recent  years  had  a 
wooden  stock,  and  the  iron  was  adjusted  by  blows  with 
a  hammer ;  this  form  of  plane  has  changed  very  little 
since  the  first  types  were  invented,  as  planes  of  ancient 


FIG.  46.  —  SECTION  OF  IRON  PLANE. 

1,  cutter,  iron,  or  bit;  2,  cap  iron;  3,  plane  iron  screw;  4,  cap  lever;  4  a,  cam;  5,  cap  screw; 
6,  frog;  6a,  mouth;  7,  Y  lever;  8,  vertical  adjusting  nut;  8a,  vertical  adjusting  screw;  9, 
lateral  adjustment;  10,  frog  screws;  11,  handle;  12,  knob;  13,  handle  bolt  and  nut;  14,  bolt 
knob  and  nut;  15,  handle  screw;  16,  bottom,  or  stock. 

times  have  been  found  which  in  all  essentials  are  prac- 
tically the  same  as  those  in  use  to-day. 

(C.)  Our  modern  planes  are  more  easily  adjusted  and 
more  convenient  to  use,  though  they  will  do  no  better 
work  than  the  wooden  planes  of  our  forefathers,  ^  hich  are 
still  preferred  by  many  of  the  best  workmen.  The  face  of 
an  iron  plane  holds  its  shape  permanently,  while  it  is  neces- 
sary that  the  wooden  plane  should  be  jointed  occasionally. 


74 


ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 


WITH  IMPROPERLY  ADJUSTEDCAP 
IRON. 


(D.)    There  are  planes  for  every  conceivable  purpose, 
all  constructed  upon  the  same  general  principle  as  the 

common  bench  plane  which 
we  shall  discuss  later.  These 
planes  are  adjusted  by  screws 
and  levers,  which  are  very 
simple,  and  any  one  under- 
standing them  may  easily  com- 
prehend the  more  intricate 
FIG.  47.  -RESULT  OF  USING  PLANE  molding  or  universal  planes. 

The  adjustment  of  the 
modern  plane  may  be  under- 
stood by  a  careful  study  of  Fig.  46  and  by  comparing 
it  with  the  plane  itself.  The  "  cutter,"  "  iron,"  or  "  bit  " 
(1)  and  the  "  cap  iron"  (2)  are  the  essentials  of  the  tool,  and 
it  is  upon  their  condition  and  adjustment  that  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  plane  depends.  If  the  cap  iron  is  set  too 
far  from  the  edge  of  the  iron,  and  if  the  cut  is  made  against 
the  grain,  the  shaving  will  not  break  before  it  leads  the 
iron  into  the  wood,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  47.  If  the  cap  iron  is  set 
somewhat  less  than  re"  from 
the  edge  of  the  cutter,  accord- 
ing to  the  wood  being  planed, 
it  will  break  the  shaving  nearly 
as  soon  as  it  is  cut,  as  in  Fig.  48, 
and  will  result  in  a  smooth,  clean 
surface.  The  closer  the  cap  iron  _ 

is  set  to  the  edge,  the  smoother 

the  iron  will  cut,  as  the  breaks  in  the  shaving  are  thereby 
made  shorter. 


FIG.  48.  —  RESULT  OF  USING 


TOOLS  75 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  closer  the  bottom  of  the  cap  iron 
(2)  is  set  to  the  edge  of  the  cutter  (1),  the  shorter  the 
breaks  will  be,  as  in  Fig.  48,  and  the  more  smoothly  the 
plane  will  cut.  The  plane  "  iron  screw  "  (3)  holds  the  edge  of 
the  cutter  (1)  and  the  bottom  of  the  cap  iron  (2)  in  their 
desired  relation.  The  ' '  cap  lever ' '  (4)  being  pressed  against 
the  under  side  of  the  head  of  the  "cap  screw"  (5),  by  the 
"  cam  "  (4  a),  holds  the  iron  in  its  place,  and  presses  the 
cap  iron  (2)  firmly  against  the  top  of  the  cutter  (1).  Un- 
less the  cap  iron  fits  the  face  of  the  cutter  perfectly,  the 
plane  will  not  work  satisfactorily.  The  "  frog "  (6) 
carries  all  the  adjusting  mechanism  of  the  plane,  and  may 
be  moved  backward  or  forward  to  reduce  or  enlarge  the 
"  mouth"  (6  a),  which  should  be  no  larger  than  is  nec- 
essary to  allow  the  shavings  to  pass  freely.  The  frog 
rarely  will  require  readjusting  after  it  has  been  properly 
located. 

The  "  Y  lever "  (7)  forces  the  plane  irons  (1  and  2) 
in  or  out  simultaneously,  which  governs  the  projection, 
or  "set,"  of  the  edge  of  the  cutter  (1)  beyond  the  face,  or 
"  sole  "  (b)  of  the  "  plane  stock,"  and  thus  the  thickness 
of  the  shaving  which  the  plane  will  cut.  The  "  adjusting 
nut  "  (8)  moves  freely  upon  the  "  screw  "  (8  a)  and  oper- 
ates the.  Y  lever  (7).  The  "  lateral  adjustment "  (9)  is  for 
the  purpose  of  forcing  the  iron  to  cut  in  the  exact  center  of 
the  width  of  the  face  (b)  of  the  plane.  The  two  "frog 
screws"  (10)  hold  the  frog  rigidly  in  the  position  which 
will  make  the  throat  (6  a)  of  the  desired  size. 

The  above  illustrates  all  the  adjusting  mechanism;  the 
other  parts  of  the  plane  are  as  follows :  "  handle  "  (11) ; 
"  knob  "  (12) ;  "  handle  bolt  "  and  "  nut  "  (13) ;  "  knob 


76 


ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 


bolt  "  and  "  nut  "   (14) ;    "  handle  screw  "   (15) ;    "  bot- 
tom/' or  "  stock  "  (16). 

The  face,  or  sole,  of  the  plane  (b)  must  be  perfectly 
straight,  or  good  work  cannot  be  done.  The  ends  of  the 

plane  (h  and  t)  are 
called  the  " heel' 'and 
"  toe,"  respectively. 
The  "mouth"  of  the 
plane  (between  6  a 
and  2)  must  be  kept 
clear  of  shavings, 
or  it  may  become 
clogged. 

(E.)  In  setting  a 
plane,  do  not  pass 
the  fingers  over  the 
face,  or  sole,  as  cut 
fingers  may  result. 
Hold  the  plane  as 
shown  in  Fig.  49, 
and  look  toward  the 
light,  when  the  exact 
projection  of  the  cutter  may  be  seen.  Notice  the  position 
of  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  and  that  the  eye  glances 
from  toe  to  heel.  This  leaves  the  right  hand  free  to  make 
the  adjustments.  This  is  a  workmanlike  way  of  setting  a 
plane,  and  in  this,  as  in  all  handling  of  tools,  awkwardness 
should  be  avoided. 

40.  Sharpening  a  plane.  —  (A.)  An  important  part  of 
this  process  is  the  grinding  of  the  cutter.  Set  the  cap 
back  about  J"  from  the  edge  of  the  iron,  and  use  it  as  a 


FIG.  49.  —  SETTING  A  PLANE. 


TOOLS 


77 


guide  by  which  to  grind  the  iron  perfectly  square,  as  at 
A,  Fig.  50.  The  cap  iron  should  be  kept  perfectly  square, 
and  never  touched  except  to  fit  it  to  the  cutter,  or,  if  it  is 
too  thick  to  allow  the  shavings  to  pass  freely,  to  file  the 
top  of  it  to  the  proper  thickness.  If  the  tool  is  kept  in 
order  skillfully,  the  cap 
will  need  care  only  upon 
rare  occasions. 

The  cutter  should  be 
held  firmly  to  the  grind- 
stone or  emery  wheel 
and  kept  moving  from 
side  to  side  to  prevent 
wearing  the  stone  in 
one  place.  The  grind- 
ing should  all  be  done 
upon  the  beveled  side  of 
the  cutter,  which  should  be  held  upon  the  stone  at  an 
angle  of  about  20°  (as  at  B,  Fig.  50),  more  rather  than 
less,  as  a  thinner  edge  is  apt  to  "  chatter/'  or  vibrate,  if 
it  strikes  a  hard  place  in  the  wood.  Many  workmen  use 
a  rest  when  grinding;  this  insures  a  true  bevel.  Any 
device  which  holds  the  tool  firmly  at  the  same  place  on 
the  stone  will  do  for  a  rest. 

In  whetting  the  cutter,  the  screw  of  the  cap  iron  should 
be  loosened  and  the  cap  iron  carried  back  until  the  screw 
stops  at  the  top  of  the  slot  of  the  bit,  as  at  C,  Fig.  50. 
The  screw  is  then  tightened  with  the  fingers  to  hold  the 
cap  in  place ;  this  gives  a  better  grasp  of  the  iron,  though 
some  workmen  prefer  to  take  the  cap  off  entirely  while 
whetting. 


FIG.    50.' — WHETTING   AND    GRINDING    OF 
PLANE. 

(For  explanation,  see  text.) 


78  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

The  bevel  of  the  iron  should  be  held  exactly  upon  the 
surface  of  -the  oilstone,  as  shown  at  C,  Fig.  50.  the  iron 
being  grasped  as  in  Fig.  51.  Keep  the  right  wrist  rigid 
and  allow  the  arm  to  swing  from  the  shoulder,  bending 
only  at  the  elbow.  In  this  way  the  rocking  motion  may 
be  reduced  to  a  minimum ;  this  is  necessary  to  preserve 
the  bevel.  Though  the  bevel  may  be  maintained  better 


FIG.  51.  —  WHETTING  OR  OILSTONING  THE  BEVELED  SIDE  OF  A  CUTTER. 

by  imparting  a  short  circular  motion  to  the  plane  iron,  or 
to  any  edge  tool  which  is  being  sharpened,  it  seems  an  awk- 
ward and  fussy  method  of  work,  and  rarely  is  used  by  an 
expert  workman.  By  long  practice  the  mechanic  finds 
that  a  stroke  made  nearly  the  entire  length  of  the  stone 
will  impart  an  edge  quicker,  and  after  the  knack  has  been 
acquired,  the  bevel  will  be  preserved  just  as  well. 

Turn  the  whetstone  end  for  end  frequently,  and  work 
upon  the  farther  end,  as  in  this  way  the  stone  may  be 
kept  true  much  longer  than  if  one  place  upon  it  is  used  all 


TOOLS 


79 


the  time.  This  will  also  minimize  the  danger  of  pulling 
the  tool  off  from  the  nearer  end  of  the  stone,  which  will 
generally  make  regrinding  necessary. 

When  the  beveled  side  has  been  whetted,  lay  the  face, 
or  the  top  of  the  iron,  perfectly  flat  upon  the  stone,  as  in 
Fig.  52,  holding  it  down  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand, 


FIG.  52.  —  WHETTING  OR  OILSTONING  THE  PLAIN  SIDE  OF  THE  PLANE  IRON. 

using  the  right  hand  only  to  move  the  iron  back  and  forth. 
Care  should  be  used  that  under  no  circumstances  is  the 
face  of  the  iron  lifted  the  slightest  degree  from,  the  stone. 
At  this  stage  of  sharpening  a  plane  iron,  the  utmost  care 
is  necessary  that  the  face  of  the  cutter  does  not  lose  its 
perfectly  straight  surface  at  the  edge,  as  the  slightest 
deviation  from  absolute  accuracy  at  this  place  will  prevent 
the  cap  iron  from  fitting  properly,  which  will  cause  end- 


80  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

less  trouble,  as  the  shavings  will  be  forced  between  the 
cap  and  the  face  of  the  iron  (see  C.  of  this  topic). 

(B.)    The  shape  of  the  cutting  edge  of  the  plane  cutter 
has  an  important  influence  upon  its  efficiency.     Imagine 
the  edge  divided  into  three  equal  parts  :  the  middle  part 
should  be  perfectly  straight,  or  almost  im- 
perceptibly rounded;  the  two  outside  thirds 
should   be  slightly  and  gradually  rounded 
until  the  corners  of  the  iron  are  so  short  that 
FIG.  53.— SHAPE    there  will  be  no  danger  of  their  projecting 

pL^iLT    below  the  face  of   the   Plane'     This  Sives 
the  edge  an  elliptical   shape,  as  shown  in 

Fig.  53,  which  is  somewhat  exaggerated,  as  the  shape 
shown  is  about  that  which  would  be  seen  if  a  moderately 
coarse  jack  plane  were  held  as  in  Fig.  49. 

(C.)  In  order  to  insure  fine  work,  the  cap  iron  must  be 
fitted  so  carefully  to  the  face  and  the  edge  of  the  cutter 
that,  if  necessary,  it  may  be  placed  less  than  e^th  of  an  inch 
from  the  cutting  edge,  though  this  would  rarely  be  required 
except  upon  very  cross-grained  wood. 

In  fitting  the  cap  iron  to  the  top  of  the  cutter,  a  very 
fine,  sharp  file  should  be  used.  The  filing  must  all  be 
done  upon  the  under  side  of  the  cap  iron,  at  the  places 
where  it  rests  upon  the  face  or  top  of  the  cutter;  or,  if 
preferred,  the  cap  may  be  very  carefully  bent,  but  unless 
there  is  considerable  fitting  necessary,  and  unless  the  joint 
is  perfected  by  the  use  of  a  file,  this  method  is  not 
recommended. 

If  sufficient  care  and  skill  are  exercised,  a  plane  may  be 
sharpened  and  adjusted  so  finely  that  a  veneer  of  .01" 
or  less  in  thickness  of  bird's-eye  maple,  burl  walnut, 


TOOLS  81 

ash,  or  similar  wood  may  be  smoothed.  It  is  not  wise, 
however,  to  spend  the  time  necessary  to  keep  a  plane 
sharpened  and  adjusted  to  do  this  sort  of  work,  as  a 
scraper  and  sandpaper,  or  the  latter  alone,  is  the  most 
economical  way  to  smooth  woods  of  such  nature. 

(D.)  To  remedy  clogging  of  the  mouth,  remove  the  con- 
ditions which  cause  it ;  simply  digging  out  the  shavings 
is  useless.  An  improperly  fitted  cap  iron  is  one  of  the 
principal  causes  of  trouble ;  the  cutter  may  be  ground  so 
thin  that  when  it  is  forced  against  a  knot  or  hard  place, 
the  iron  chatters,  which  allows  the  shavings  an  entrance 
under  the  cap  iron.  In  this  lies  the  only  real  advan- 
tage of  a  wooden  plane  over  the  modern  iron  plane,  as  in 
the  former  the  iron  is  much  thicker  and  stiffer.  The 
cap  iron  may  be  so  thick  that  it  causes  the  shavings  to 
curl  too  much,  or  the  frog  may  be  se't  too  far  to  the 
front,  which  will  make  the  mouth  too  small.  This  latter 
may  be  remedied  by  moving  the  frog  back,  but  in  a 
wooden  plane,  the  mouth  and  the  throat  would  have  to 
be  cut  larger  in  order  to  allow  the  shavings  to  clear  them- 
selves properly. 


FIG.  54.  —  JACK  PLANE. 


41.   The  jack   plane    (Fig.  54)   generally  is  15"  long, 
and  its  ordinary  use  is  for  the  purpose  of  roughing  out  a 
KING'S  WOODWORK — 6 


82  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

piece  of  wood  for  jointing  or  smoothing.  If  it  is  properly 
sharpened,  it  may  be  used  as  a  smoothing  plane,  or  as  a 
jointer  upon  small  work,  as  it  is  capable  of  doing  as  good 
work  as  any  plane. 

The  jack  plane  generally  is  ground  more  rounding,  and 
the  cap  set  farther  back  than  in  the  other  planes,  espe- 
cially if  it  is  to  be  used  upon  rough  work. 

42.  The  jointer.  — (A.)   This  tool  is  from  20"  to  26" 
long,  and  is  used  to  straighten  edges  and  surfaces,  or  to 
fit  them  together.     The  shape  of  the  edge  of  the  cutter 
of  this  plane  should  be  but  slightly  elliptical,  less  so  than 
the  jack  plane  or  the  smoother,  unless  the  two  latter  are 
fitted  for  doing  very  fine  work. 

(B.)  In  using  a  jointer  for  squaring  or  jointing  an  edge, 
it  should  be  carried  to  one  side  or  the  other  of  its  face  as 
may  be  necessary  to  take  advantage  of  the  elliptically 
shaped  edge  of  the  cutter,  by  cutting  a  shaving  thicker  on 
one  edge  than  on  the  other,  thus  making  the  edge  of  the 
board  square  with  the  face  side. 

To  make  a  perfectly  square  edge,  the  cut  should  be 
made  in  the  center  of  both  the  iron  and  the  width  of  the 
face  of  the  plane.  The  plane  should  be  held  as  shown 
in  Fig.  55,  the  fingers  under  the  face  of  the  plane,  the 
tops  of  the  finger-nails  touching  the  board  lightly,  guid- 
ing the  plane,  and  keeping  the  bit  cutting  in  one  place 
upon  its  edge. 

43.  The  smoothing  plane  (A.)  is  of  the  same  type  and 
mechanism  as  those  described  above,  though  it  is  but 
9  or  10"  long;    if  satisfactory  work  is  expected  from  it, 
it  must  be  kept  in  good  order,  with  the  cap  iron  perfectly 
fitted.     For  general  work,  it  is  not  necessary  to  spend  the 


TOOLS 


83 


time  to  insure  that  the  plane  should  be  continually  in 
readiness  to  work  upon  hard,  tough,  cross-grained  wood, 
as  a  plane  to  do  the  latter  kind  of  work  well  is  unnecessary 
upon  softer  or  straight-grained  wood.  For  ordinary 


work,  the  cap  iron  should  be  set  from  -£?"  to  Ty  from  the 


FIG.  55.  —  METHOD  OF  GUIDING  A  JOINTER. 

edge  of  the  bit,  but  for  the  finest  work,  the  closer  to  the 
edge  it  will  fit  and  allow  a  shaving  to  be  taken,  the  finer 
the  work  that  may  be  done.  No  wood  used  upon  ordinary 
work  is  so  cross-grained  or  knurly  that  it  cannot  be 
smoothed  economically,  if  a  properly  sharpened  and  ad- 
justed plane  is  used. 


84 


ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 


FIG.  56.  —  KNUCKLE  JOINT  BLOCK  PLANE. 


(B.)  A  smoothing  plane  should  cut  a  shaving  as  nearly 
the  entire  width  of  the  bit  as  possible,  therefore  a  very  flat, 
elliptically  shaped  edge  must  be  maintained.  In  using  a 

plane  or  any  kind  of 
cutting  tool,  the  di- 
rection of  the  grain 
of  the  wood  should 
be  carefully  studied, 
and  every  advantage 
taken  of  it  to  facili- 
tate the  work. 

44.   The    block 
plane  (knuckle  joint 

cap,  Fig.  56)  (A.)  is  constructed  upon  a  somewhat  different 
principle  than  the  planes  above  described,  as  the  adjusting 
nut  (a)  under  the  cutter  at  the  rear  end  of  the  plane  is 
raised  or  lowered  to  with- 
draw or  advance  the  bit, 
and  thus  govern  the  cut  of 
the  tool.  The  size  of  the 
mouth  is  controlled  by  a 
movable  section  of  the  face 
at  b.  This  plane  has  no 
cap  iron,  as  the  use  for 
which  it  is  intended  makes 
it  unnecessary.  The  block 
plane  is  ,  used  across  the 
end  of  the  wood,  at  right 
angles  with  the  general  direction  of  the  grain.  The  iron, 
or  cutter,  is  so  placed  in  the  stock  of  the  plane  that  its 
cutting  angle  is  as  nearly  in  line  with  the  cut  as  possible, 


FIG.  57.  —  USE  OF  THE  BLOCK  PLANE. 
(For  explanation,  see  text.) 


TOOLS 


85 


with  the  beveled  side  of  the  iron  uppermost.  By  this 
method  of  construction,  the  iron  is  given  more  stiffness  to 
resist  the  chatter,  or  vibration,  caused  by  planing  end  wood. 

(B.)  In  using  the  block  plane,  do  not  make  the  cuts 
from  edge  to  edge, 
or  chips  will  be 
broken  off  at  the  cor- 
ners ;  instead,  plane 
from  each  edge,  and 
stop  the  stroke  be- 
fore the  other  edge 
is  reached ;  reverse 
the  plane  and  work 
from  the  other  direc- 
tion, as  shown  at  A, 
B,  Fig.  57.  An- 
other and  workman- 
like way  of  using 
the  block  plane  upon 
small  pieces  is  shown 
in  Fig.  58.  Work 
from  each  edge  as  de- 
scribed above,  turn- 
ing the  piece  over 

for  each  stroke.  In  sharpening  the  block  plane  iron, 
the  edge  should  be  made  slightly  elliptical,  and  the  bevel 
carefully  maintained. 

45.  The  correct  position.  —  (A.)  In  using  planes  or 
any  edge  tools,  a  position  should  be  taken  which  will 
furnish  sufficient  resistance  to  the  pressure  required  for 
making  the  cut,  as  the  pressure  should  be  applied  firmly 


FIG.  58.  —  USING  BLOCK  PLANE  UPON  SMALL 
PIECES. 


86  ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 

and  steadily.  With  experience,  the  correct  position  will 
be  taken  involuntarily,  but  the  beginner  should  be  con- 
tinually upon  the  watch  to  overcome  his  awkwardness. 

(B.)  The  habit  of  bending  from  the  hips  is  acquired 
easily,  and  the  young  workman  should  learn  to  work  in  as 
nearly  an  erect  position  as  possible,  for  if  the  bending  of 
the  shoulders  is  persisted  in,  a  permanent  stoop  will  re- 
sult. Stand  facing  the  work  and  clear  of  the  bench  in 
order  to  prevent  unnecessary  wear  of  the  clothing. 

(C.)  Do  not  allow  the 
plane  to  drop  over  the 
end  of  the  board  at  either 
the  beginning  or  the  end 

FIG.  59.-INCOBBECT  USE  OF  JACK         Qf  the  ^^  ^  indicated 

at  A,  B,  Fig.  59.  To  pre- 
vent this,  the  hand  should  be  kept  upon  that  part  of 
the  plane  which  is  upon  the  board ;  at  the  beginning  of 
the  stroke,  the  weight  should  be  upon  the  front  end  of  the 
plane,  as  in  Fig.  60,  and  at  the  end  of  the  stroke  upon  the 
rear  end,  or  upon  the  handle,  as  in  Fig.  61.  Begin  and  end 
each  stroke  with  a  lifting  motion  instead  of  allowing  the 
plane  to  drop  as  it  leaves  or  enters  the  wood.  The  plane 
should  be  held  firmly,  not  rigidly ;  do  not  allow  it  to  jump  ; 
this  is  caused  generally  by  an  attempt  to  take  a  shaving 
heavier  than  the  plane  should  cut,  or,  if  the  cap  iron  is 
fitted  and  adjusted  properly,  by  a  dull  iron.  A  cutter  will 
jump  or  chatter  if  it  does  not  fit  solidly  against  the  frog. 
In  drawing  the  plane  back  after  making  a  stroke,  carry  it 
upon  the  toe,  or  upon  one  corner ;  do  not  drag  it  flat 
upon  its  face,  as  the  iron  is  thereby  dulled  as  much  as 
when  it  is  cutting,  or  possibly  more. 


TOOLS 


87 


FIG.  60.  —  BEGINNING  THE  STROKE  WITH  A  JACK  PLANE. 


FIG.  61. — -  ENDING  THE  STROKE  WITH  A  JACK  PLANE. 


88  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

(D.)  Carry  the  plane  parallel  with  the  grain  when  it  is 
possible,  and  take  no  more  shavings  off  than  is  necessary 
to  attain  the  desired  results.  The  young  workman  should 
make  a  study  of  the  grain  and  the  peculiarities  of  the 
different  kinds  of  lumber  upon  which  he  works,  losing  no 
opportunity  to  experiment  upon  and  compare  the  qualities 
of  every  available  wood. 

(E.)  In  using  edge  tools  of  every  kind,  little  is  gained, 
and  much  is  often  lost,  by  working  with  dull  tools ;  tools 
should  be  sharpened  often  and  thoroughly.  This  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  for  even  with  the  tools  in  the  best 
possible  order,  it  will  require  much  care  and  skill  to  do 
good  work. 

46.  Chisels.  —  (A.)  Carpenters'  chisels  are  used  for 
paring  and  mortising;  the  paring  chisel  should  be  light, 
smoothly  finished,  and  ground  with  a  sharper  bevel  than 
that  used  for  mortising,  for  which  the  heaviest  chisel  is 
none  too  strong. 

(B.)  Chisels  are  "  tanged "  or  "  socket,"  according 
to  the  method  by  which  the  blade  and  handle  is  joined. 
The  tanged  firmer  chisel  (Fig.  62,  A)  is  the  older  form,  and 
is  not  so  strong  as  the  more  recently  designed  socket  chisel 
(B).  For  light  work,  the  tanged  chisel  is  preferred  by 
many,  but  more  commonly  the  socket  chisel  is  used,  as  it 
is  stiffer,  not  so  easily  broken,  and  has  no  shoulder  to 
catch  upon  the  edge  of  the  wood  when  the  tool  is  used. 
The  beveled-edge  chisel  (<7)  is  a  favorite  tool  with  pat- 
tern makers  ;  and  the  mortise,  or  framing  chisel  (D),  is  de- 
signed for  heavy  use.  A  set  of  chisels  consists  of  one  each 
of  the  following  dimensions:  \",  V,  f",  i",  I",  3",  I", 
1",  1J",  IJ",  If",  2". 


TOOLS 


89 


(C.)  A  large,  heavy  chisel,  3J"  or  4"  in  width,  called 
a  "  slice"  or  "  slick,"  is  used,  like  a  paring  chisel,  upon 
heavy  work. 

(D.)  Handles  for  paring  chisels  may  be  of  any  hard 
wood  and  of  any  convenient  shape,  as  these  should  not  be 
pounded  upon.  Although  they 
are  occasionally  used  for  cutting 
small  mortises,  it  is  not  a  good 
practice  unless  the  tops  of  the 
handles  are  protected  by  leather 
or  fiber  tops.  Mortising  chisels 
should  have  handles  of  the  tough- 
est wood  obtainable,  preferably 
hickory,  with  leather  nailed  with 
small  brads  upon  the  top  to  pro- 
tect the  wood.  If  a  leather 
washer  is  fastened  to  the  handle 
by  a  pin  or  dowel,  the  wood  will 
in  time  pound  down  and  the 
leather  be  broken  out  and  de- 
stroyed, while  if  bradded  upon 
the  handle,  the  leather  may  be  renewed  as  often  as  neces- 
sary. An  iron  ring,  or  ferrule,  is  used  by  many  to  prevent 
the  handle  from  splitting,  but  this  will  bruise  the  face  of  the 
mallet.  A  hammer  should  never  be  used  upon  any  sort 
of  wooden  handle,  or  the  handle  will  be  very  quickly  de- 
stroyed, but  a  mallet  will  injure  it  comparatively  little. 
In  fitting  the  handle  to  the  chisel  blade,  care  should  be 
used  that  they  are  in  perfect  alignment,  as  otherwise  a 
sharp  blow  may  break  the  blade. 

(E.)    In  sharpening  a  mortise  chisel,  it  should  be  ground 


FIG.  62.  —  CHISELS. 

A,  tanged  firmer  chisel;  B,  socket 
chisel;  C,  beveled-edge  chisel;  D, 
mortise,  or  framing  chisel. 


90  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

at  an  angle  of  not  less  than  30°,  as  a  thinner  edge  would  be 
apt  to  break  upon  coming  in  contact  with  a  knot.     A 

paring  chisel  may  be  ground  as 
thin  as  20°,  as  it  does  not  have 
to  stand  heavy  blows,  and  a  bet- 
ter edge  for  the  purpose  may 

FIG.  63.— DRAWSHAVE.         thus  be  obtained.     In  whetting  a 
chisel,  the  bevel  must  be  care- 
fully maintained,  and  the  back  kept   perfectly  straight, 
like  the  face  of  a  plane  iron,  or  it  will  be  impossible  to 
work  to  a  line. 

47.  Gouges  may  in  general  be  described  hi  the  same  way 
as  chisels,  except  that  they  are  curved   instead   of  flat. 
The  terms  "inside"  and  "  outside,"  used  in  describing 
them,  indicate  whether  they  are  ground  upon  the  inside 
or  the  outside  of  the  curve. 

48.  The  drawshave  (Fig.  63)  is  often  used  in  cutting 
curves,  in  chamfering,  and  for  roughing  out  work.     The 
patent  drawshave,  with  folding  handles,  is  a  safer  tool  to 
keep  in  the  tool  box,  as  the  edge  is  protected,  but  it  is  not 
as  satisfactory  for  general  work   as   the   ordinary  rigid- 
handled  tool.     If  the  latter  is  used,  a  piece  of  wood  should 
be  fitted  over  the  edge  to  protect  both  it  and  the  hands 
when  the  tool  is  not  in  use. 

49.  The  spokeshave  (Fig.  64) 
should  not  be  used  in  any  place 

where  a  plane  can  be  used,  but          FlG  64._SpOKESHAvE. 

only   upon   concave   or   convex 

surfaces ;  when  used,  it  may  be  either  pushed  or  pulled. 

50.  Bits  (A.)  are  of  many  different  types,  the  most  com- 
mon being  the  auger  bit  (Fig.  65) .     The  use  of  the  "  worm  " 


TOOLS 


91 


FIG.  65.  —  AUGER  BIT. 


(a)  is  to  draw  the  bit  into  the  wood,  thus  making  a  heavy 
pressure  upon  the  bit  unnecessary.  The  "lips"  (66) 
make  an  incision  on  the  jt 
wood  below  the  cut  made 
by  the  "  cutters  "  (cc),  which 
take  the  shavings  out  and 
into  the  "twist,"  which  in  turn  lifts  them  out  of  the  hole. 
(B.)  Care  should  be  used  when  boring  a  deep  hole  that 
the  bit  is  removed  before  the  shavings  clog  in  the  twist, 
which  will  happen  if  the  hole  becomes  full  of  shavings 
which  cannot  be  lifted  out.  Should  clogging  occur,  do 
not  use  a  great  deal  of  strength  in  trying  to  back  the  bit 
out,  or  its  "shank"  may  be  twisted  off ;  it  is  better  to  pull 
it  out  with  a  straight  pull  by  means  of  a  lever,  if  suffi- 
cient strength  cannot  be  otherwise  exerted,  the  pull  being 
straight  over  the  center  of  the  bit  from  the  "  chuck,"  not 

from  the  head  of  the  bitbrace. 
After  boring  the  hole  to 
the  desired  depth,  do  not 
turn  the  bit  backward  to 
remove  it,  as  shavings  will 
be  left  in  the  hole,  but  give 
it  one  turn  back  to  loosen  the 
worm,  then  turn  as  though 
boring  the  hole  deeper,  lift- 
ing under  the  head  of  the 
bitbrace  in  the  meantime, 
by  which  process  the  shav- 

FIG.  66.  —  CROSS-HANDLED  AUGER. 

ings  will  be  lifted  out.    These 

bits  are  numbered  from  ^ths  to  {|ths  inch  by  16ths  of 
an  inch.     Sizes  larger  than  these  are  known  as  augers. 


92 


ELEMENTS  OF   WOODWORK 


(C.)    Large  auger  bits  generally  are  fitted  with  cross 

handles,  as  in  Fig.  66,  as  a  bitbrace  will  not  give  sufficient 
leverage  to  make  the  bit  cut  the  wood ;  these 
are  called  augers.  The  form  shown  is  known 
as  a  "  Ford  auger." 

(D.)  The  German  bit  (Fig.  67,  A)  is  used  for 
boring  small  holes  for  screws  and  nails,  and 
has  entirely  supplanted  the  gimlet  of  our  fore- 
fathers, as  its  action  is  much  more  rapid.  Its 
progression  in  sizes  is  from  Ty  to  Jf  "  by  32ds 
of  an  inch ;  this  tool  is  also  called  a  screw  bit. 
(E.)  The  twist  drill  (Fig.  67,  B)  is  a  valu- 
able tool ;  every  carpenter  should  own  an 
assortment  of  twist  drills  for  use  in  places 
where  other  bits  may  come  in 
contact  with  iron.  The  sizes 
range  from  Ty  to  -f  "  by  32ds. 

The  round  shank  drill  may  be  purchased 

in  any  size  up  to  3",  by  64ths  of  an  inch. 
(F.)    The  extension  bit  (Fig.  68,  A)  is  a 

very  convenient  tool  for  boring  a  hole  of 

any  size  within  certain  limits,   and   is   at 

times  extremely  valuable. 

(G.)    The  center  bit  (Fig.  68,  B)  is  often 

used  in  boring  holes  through  thin  material 

which  would  be  apt  to  be  split  if  an  auger 

bit  were  used. 

(H.)    In  filing  an  auger  bit,  it  should  be 

held  as  shown  in  Fig.  69,  and  a  small,  fine 

file  used  on  the  inside  of  the  lips  and  the  bottom  of  the 

cutters  ;  in  no  case  should  the  outside  of  the  lips  be  sharp- 


FIG.  67. 

A,  German  bit; 
B,  twist  drill. 


*  B 

FIG.  68. 

A,     extension     bit 
B,  center  bit. 


TOOLS 


93 


ened,  as  the  size  of  the  bit  will  be  reduced.  In  filing  the 
cutter,  be  sure  that  its  under  side  back  of  the  cutting 
edge  is  filed  enough 
to  clear  the  wood 
after  the  cutter  has 
entered  it. 

In  doing  this,  it 
should  be  remembered 
that  the  bit  pro- 
gresses into  the  wood 
as  it  cuts,  and  unless 
the  under  side  of  the 
cutter  is  filed  prop- 
erly, it  will  bear  upon 
the  wood  beneath  it, 
back  of  the  cutting 
edge,  and  prevent  the 
bit  from  advancing. 
To  remedy  this,  be 
sure  that  the  cutter 
is  kept  filed  thin,  and  that  the  under  side  is  straight  from 
the  edge  to  the  beginning  of  the  twist. 

(I.)  If  the  lips  (Fig.  65,  bb)  are  filed  off,  an  auger  bit 
bores  into  the  end  wood  easily. 

51.  The  bitbrace,  or  stock.  —  (A.)  This  tool  is  used 
to  hold  the  bit,  and  to  furnish  sufficient  leverage  to  turn 
the  bit  into  the  wood.  Bitbraces  are  made  of  different 
sizes,  and  with  different  devices  for  holding  the  "tangs"  of 
the  bits.  A  workman  should  own  an  8"  and  a  10"  swing 
bitbrace,  as  it  is  often  necessary  to  use  different  sizes  or 
kinds  of  bits  alternately. 


FIG.  69.  —  FILING  AN  AUGER  BIT. 


94  ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 

(B.)  The  ratchet  bitbrace  (Fig.  70)  differs  from  the 
ordinary  brace  only  in  the  ratchet  attachment.  It  is  an 
indispensable  tool  to  an  up-to-date  workman,  as  it  may 

be  used  in  many  places 
where  an  ordinary  brace 
would  be  useless ;  for  gen- 
eral work,  however,  being 
heavier,  it  is  less  conven- 
ient than  the  plain  brace. 

FIG.  70.  -RATCHET  BITBRACE.*"  52.    The  Screwdriver  (A.) 

is  one  of  the  most  important 

tools  in  a  carpenters  kit,  and  to  be  of  use  should  be  of 
finely  tempered  steel,  for  if  too  soft,  it  will  turn  over,  and 
if  too  hard,  it  will  break.  The  edge  should  be  as  thick 
as  the  slot  of  a  screw  will  allow,  in  order  to  have  as  much 
strength  as  possible. 

(B.)  A  round-handled  screwdriver  is  not  so  satisfactory 
as  one  with  an  elliptical  or  polygonal  handle,  as  it  is  im- 
possible to  obtain  as  good  a  grip  upon  the  former  as  upon 
the  latter;  a  round  handle,  planed  flat  upon  the  two 
opposite  sides,  is  quite  commonly  used. 

(C.)  Ratchet  screwdrivers  are  useful  in  many  places  where 
it  is  difficult  to  use  two  hands,  and  there  are  patent 
quick-action  screwdrivers  on  the  market  which  are  suitable 
only  for  certain  kinds  of  light  work,  as  what  is  gained  in 
speed  is  lost  in  power.  The  screwdriver  bit  is  a  short 
screwdriver  blade,  tanged  to  fit  a  bitbrace;  it  is  essen- 
tial in  doing  economical  work,  as  screws  may  be  driven 
much  more  rapidly  than  by  hand,  and  it  is  also  valu- 
able on  account  of  its  greater  leverage  in  driving  heavy 
screws. 


TOOLS 


95 


FIG.  71. 
COMPASSES. 


FIG.  72. 
CALIPERS. 


53.  Compasses,  or  dividers  (Fig.  71),  are  used  to  draw 
circles  and  curves,  and  for  spacing  and  scribing,  by  which  is 
meant  the  process  of  fitting 
a  piece  of  wood  to  an  uneven 
surface.  Calipers  (Fig.  72) 
are  used  to  measure  the  out- 
side of  a  round  or  oval 
object.  Those  shown  are 
known  as  "  outside  "  cali- 
pers; "  inside  "  calipers,  or 
those  used  for  measuring  the 
inside  of  a  hole,  have  straight 
legs.  These  tools  ordinarily 
are  not  considered  a  part  of 
a  carpenter's  kit,  as  they  are  generally  used  upon  work 
requiring  more  exact  measurements.  Wood-workers'  tools 
are  graded  to  sizes,  generally  nothing  finer  than  16ths  of 

an  inch;  hence,  the  ordinary 
methods  of  measuring  will 
usually  give  sufficiently  accu- 
rate results. 

54.  Pliers.  —  (A.)  These  are 
indispensable  little  tools  (Fig. 
73),  and  every  workman 
should  own  a  pair.  Those 
combining  several  tools  are 
most  useful ;  cheap  tools  of 
this  sort  are  usually  worthless. 
(B.)  Nippers  (Fig.  74)  are 
made  to  cut  wire,  but  not  to  pull  nails.  Being  tempered 
for  cutting,  those  of  good  quality  are  hard  and  brittle, 


FIG.  73. 
PLIERS. 


96 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


lackifig  the  toughness  necessary  to  pull  nails,  for  which 
work  a  cheap  pair  of  nippers  may  be  purchased. 

55.  The  scraper  is  one  of  the  most  useful  tools  in  the 
kit  of  the  carpenter  who  works  upon  hard  wood.  This 
tool  may  be  purchased,  or  made  of  a  very  hard  saw;  it 

must  be  of  hard,  tough 
steel,  or  the  edge  will  not 
last.  A  scraper  should 
be  about  3"  x  5",  which 
is  a  convenient  size  for 
grasping  with  the  hand. 
Many  workmen  make 
handles  for  their  scrap- 
ers (Fig.  75,  A  and  B), 
but  cabinet  makers,  and 
others  who  use  them  con- 
tinually, generally  prefer 
to  use  them  without 
handles.  If  a  large  sur- 
face is  to  be  scraped,  it 
is  well  to  have  a  handle 
of  a  leather  palm  (Fig. 

75,  C).  This  is  a  piece  of  leather  of  suitable  size  and 
shape  to  protect  the  hand  from  the  heat  generated  by  the 
action  of  the  scraper  in  cutting;  the  thumb  is  passed 
through  the  hole,  and  the  broad  part  of  the  palm  hangs 
between  the  scraper  and  the  thick  of  the  hand.  For  scrap- 
ing floors,  a  scraper  plane  (Fig.  75,  D)  will  be  found  val- 
uable, though  if  much  of  this  work  is  to  be  done,  it  will  be 
the  best  economy  to  purchase  one  of  the  forms  of  floor- 
scraping  machines. 


FIG.  75.  —  SCRAPER. 

A,  B,    handles   for  scraper;    C,   leather    palm 
D,  scraper  plane. 


TOOLS 


97 


FIG.  76.  — 
EDGES  OF 
SCRAPERS. 

A,  beveled 
edge;  B,  square 
edge. 


56.  Edges.  -  -  There  are  two  forms  of  edges  used  in 
sharpening  scrapers,  —  the  square  and  the  beveled  edge ; 
in  sharpening  either  of  these,  the  edge  should  be  filed, 
whetted,  and  turned  with  a  burnisher,  which 
imparts  a  wire  edge,  indicated  in  Fig.  76,  A 
and  B,  which  shows  enlarged  views  of  the  two 
forms  of  edges  of  scrapers.  If  the  eye  glances 
along  the  edge  of  a  properly  sharpened 
scraper,  the  edge  will  appear  slightly  curved ; 
this  edge  must  be  given  it  by  filing.  After 
the  scraper  is  filed,  each  corner  which  is  to 
be  turned  must  be  whetted  to  a  perfectly 
keen  edge  upon  an  oilstone,  as  the  object  of 
sharpening  a  scraper  is  to  "  turn  "  this  edge  at  an  angle 
with  the  sides  of  the  scraper. 

By  "  turning  "  the  edge  of  a  scraper  is  meant  pushing 
the  particles  of  steel  which  form  the  corner  over  so  that 
they  will  form  a  wire  edge  which  will  stand  at  an  angle  with 
the  sides  of  the  scraper.  When  the  edge  has  been  skillfully 
turned,  it  will  cut  like  a  very  finely  sharpened 
and  adjusted  plane,  and  will  work  either  with 
or  against  the  grain  without  tearing  the  wood. 
Notice  carefully  the  angle  of  the  burnisher 
with  the  sides  of  the  scraper,  as  at  a,  Fig.  77, 
and  as  in  Fig.  78,  which  indicates  approxi- 
mately the  angle  at  which  it  should  be  held 
across  the  edge  when  seen  in  the  view  illus- 
trated of  either  a  square  or  beveled-edge 
scraper,  the  vertical  lines  indicating  the  scraper.  The 
stroke  must  be  from  the  bottom,  up,  as  indicated.  At  A, 
Fig.  79,  is  shown  the  top  view  of  the  burnisher  as  it  makes 
KING'S  WOODWORK  —  7 


Front  t/i*uf 

FIG.  77. —AN- 
GLE OF  BUR- 
NISHER WITH 
SIDES  OF 
SCRAPER. 


98 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


each  of  the  strokes  in  turning  the  edge  of  a  square  edge 
scraper ;  notice  that  the  burnisher  swings  in  an  angle  of 
about  15°,  one  stroke  only  being  made  at  each  angle. 

At  B,  Fig.  79,  is  shown  the  method  of  turning  the  edge 
of  a  bevel  edge  scraper ;  the  student  will  notice  that  the 

angles  are  similar  to 
those  shown  at  A, 
except  that  the  first 
stroke  is  made  at 
nearly  the  same  angle 
as  the  bevel  of  the 
scraper.  An  edge 
may  often  be  turned 
at  one  stroke,  and 
more  than  three 
should  rarely  be  nec- 
essary. If  more  than 
three  are  made,  the 
edge  may  be  turned 
too  far,  which  is 
worse  than  not  being 
turned  enough.  The 
strokes  should  be 
made  in  the  order 
indicated  by  the  figures  of  the  angles  of  the  burnisher; 
otherwise  it  will  be  difficult  to  obtain  satisfactory  results. 
The  amount  of  pressure  necessary  to  apply  at  this 
stage  of  the  work  cannot  be  described,  but  can  only  be 
discovered  by  practice.  A  steady,  moderate  pressure  is 
all  that  is  needed,  but  care  should  be  used  that  the  angle 
of  the  burnisher  does  not  change  during  the  stroke.  This 


FIG.  78.  —  METHOD    OF    GRASPING    SCRAPER 
FOR  SHARPENING. 


TOOLS  99 

will  give  an  edge  suitable  for  common  counter  or  table 
tops,  hardwood  floors,  and  similar  work,  if  the  skill  to  use 
the  burnisher  properly  has  been  acquired. 

The  burnisher  should  be  slightly  lubricated  with  oil 
or  with  the  end  of  the  tongue,  as  this  assists  it  to  slide  over 
the  edge  of  the  scraper  without  scratching. 

If  a  scraper  is  to  be  used  upon  very  fine  work,  a  different 
shaped  edge  should  be  made;  it  should  be  whetted  to  four 
perfectly  square  and  keen  corners, 
each  of  which  will  furnish  an  edge. 
This  is  a  more  difficult  method  of 
sharpening  a  scraper,  but  it  gives 
four  edges  suitable  for  fine  work. 
The  edge  should  be  turned  by  carry-  FIG.  79.  —  TOP  VIEWS  OF 
ing  the  burnisher  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  £HE  ANGLES  OF  THE 

'.      e  BURNISHER. 

79,  making  the  strokes  at  the  differ- 
ent angles  in  the  order  indicated  by  the  numbers.  In  sharp- 
ening any  scraper,  care  should  be  used  that  no  strokes 
are  made  back  of  the  square,  as  stroke  be  of  Fig.  80. 
Keep  the  burnisher  pointing  down  all  the  time,  as  indi- 
cated at  a,  Fig.  77,  as  in  this  lies  the  chief  difficulty.  Two 
or  three  strokes  should  be  sufficient  to  sharpen  the  scraper. 
To  turn  the  edge  of  a  scraper  properly,  a  burnisher  is 
necessary.  This  tool  should  be  made  of  the  hardest  steel, 
and  is  often  made  by  the  workman  himself  of  an  old  file, 
ground  perfectly  smooth  and  polished.  Perhaps  the  most 
satisfactory  burnisher  within  easy  reach  of  the  wood-worker 
may  be  made  from  a  nail  set,  which  may  be  fitted  to  a 
handle  and  ground  to  an  awl  point.  The  back  of  a  nar- 
row chisel  or  gouge  may  be  used,  though  these  are  rather 
clumsy.  The  burnishers  found  ih  stores  are  generally 


100  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

unsatisfactory,  as  they  are  apt  to  be  soft,  and  any  steel 
which  can  be  cut  with  a  file  is  useless  as  a  burnisher  for 
sharpening  scrapers,  as  the  scraper  will  cut 
into  it,  instead  of  turning  over. 

If  satisfactory  results  are  not  obtained, 
there  may  be  several  causes :   the  scraper 
may  not  be  of  just  the  right  temper  or  tex- 
ture ;   the  burnisher  may  be  soft  or  rough ; 
the  edge  may  not  have  been  turned  over 
FIG  so  —  ANGI      evenly,  or  ^  maY  have  been  turned  over 
TO  BE  AVOIDED    too  far,  as  indicated  in  an  exaggerated  way 
SC^HPAERPENING    at  a,  Fig.  80,  which  is  the  result  of  carrying 
the  burnisher  around  too  far,  as  shown  by 
the  line  be.     This  may  be  remedied  by  using  the  awl  point 
as  shown  at  d,  Fig.  81,  holding  the  scraper  and  burnisher 
in  about  the  same  relative  positions  as  indicated,  guiding 
the  burnisher  by  the  thumb,  which  should  be  carried  on 
the  square  edge  of  the  scraper,  moving  with  the  burnisher 
its  entire  length.     In  this  way  the  edge  may  be  turned 
back  to  its  correct  angle,  when  a  very  light  touch  in  the 
usual  way  will  generally  make  the  desired  edge. 
If  either  the  scraper  or  the  burnisher  is  not 
of  the  right  texture,  throw  it  away,  as  it  is 
worthless.     If  the  burnisher  is  rough,  it  may 
be  made  smooth  upon  an  oilstone.     If  the  edge      rront  »,-* 
of  the  scraper  is  rough,  it  may  be  turned  back    FlG-   81-  — 

u        i       •  n    *  xi_  TURNING 

again   by   laying    the   scraper   flat    upon    the      BACK  THE 


bench,  the  rough  side  up,   and  the  burnisher 

passed  over  it  several  times;   then  proceed  as 

with  a  new  edge.     In  general,  this  is  not  so  satisfactory 

as  it   is  to  file,  whet,   and   sharpen   the   edge  all  over 


TOOLS  i 


101 


FIG.  82.  —  METHOD  OF  GRASPING    THE   SCRAPER  WHEN  WORKING  UPON  A 
BROAD  SURFACE. 


B 


FIG.  83.  —  METHOD  OF  GRASPING   THE   SCRAPER  WHEN  WORKING  WITHIN 
A  SMALL  AREA. 


102 


ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 


I  especially  if  •  the,  corner  has  been  turned  several 
times. 

Though  it  may  seem  from  the  above  explanation  of  the 
methods  of  sharpening  scrapers  that  it  is  a  very  complex 

operation,  it  will  be 
•I     seen  that  it  is  not  a 
/|  difficult  matter,  if  it 

is  once  worked  out ; 
usually  it  requires  a 
little  time  and  prac- 
tice to  acquire  the 
knack  that  will  make 
it  possible  to  do  it 
surely  and  well. 

In  using  a  scraper, 
it  may  be  grasped  as 
shown  in  Figs.  82,  83, 
84,  as  best  suits  the 
work  being  done,  and 
the  strokes  should  be 
with  the  grain.  In 
using  this  tool,  as  in 
the  use  of  most  others, 

the  easiest  way  generally  is  the  most  efficient.  As  the 
young  workman  gains  experience,  he  will  gradually  acquire 
the  correct  methods  to  use  his  tools  for  all  the  various 
purposes  within  their  scope. 

57.  Nail  sets  are  for  the  purpose  of  " setting"  the  nails, 
or  for  sinking  them  below  the  surface  of  the  wood;  and  to 
stand  the  hard  usage  to  which  they  are  subjected,  they 
must  be  very  carefully  tempered.  The  best  form  of  nail 


FIG.    84. —  METHOD    OF    GRASPING    SCRAPER 
WHEN  WORKING  UPON  AN  EDGE. 


TOOLS 


103 


FIG.  85.  —  MONKEY  WRENCH. 


set  is  that  which  has  a  cupped  or  hollow  point,  as  it  is  not 
so  apt  to  slip  off  of  the  head  of  the  nail. 

58.  Wrenches  are  of  many  kinds  and  patterns  and  of 
every   conceivable    use,    but 

that  known  as  the  "  mon- 
key/7 or  "  Coe's,"  wrench 
(Fig.  85)  is  perhaps  the  most 
convenient  for  general  work 
and  has  not  been  supplanted  by  any  of  more  recent 
invention. 

59.  Handscrews  (A.),  if  of  good  material  and  well  made, 
will  stand  any  legitimate  use,  and  if  properly  used  and 
cared  for,  will  last  a  lifetime.     However,  a  novice  or  a 
careless  workman  often  destroys  them  rapidly  by  allowing 
the  jaws  to  be  under  strain  while  in  the  position  shown  in 

Fig.  86,  which 
will  probably 
break  the  middle 
screw,  and  per- 
haps both. 

(B.)    In  using 
handscrews      for 
gluing,  the   jaws 
should  be  set  to 
the     size 
material 


FIG.   86.  —  EFFECT  OF  THE   UNSKILLFUL  USE   OF  A 
HANDSCREW. 


nearly 
of    the 

which    is    to    be 
placed     between 

them,  before  the  glue  is  spread.  In  placing  the  hand- 
screws  upon  the  work,  the  outside  screw  should  be  turned 
back  so  that  it  will  not  prevent  the  jaws  from  being 


104 


ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 


slightly  closer  at  the  outside  screw  than  at  the  points. 
This  will  allow  the  strain  which  is  applied  in  setting  up  the 
outside  screw,  to  bring  the  jaws  parallel,  which  is  the  only 
position  in  which  handscrews  should  be  allowed  to  remain. 

In  opening  or  clos- 
ing a  handscrew,  the 
middle  screw  should 
be  held  in  the  left 
hand,  and  the  outside 
screw  in  the  right, 
as  in  Fig.  87;  the 
screws  should  then  be 
grasped  so  that  they 
will  not  turn  in  the 
hand  and  the  hand- 
screw  revolved  in 
the  desired  direction. 
Never  put  unneces- 
sary strain  upon 
handscrews,  nor  leave 
them  with  a  heavy 
strain  upon  them  for  a  very  long  time. 

If  the  work  is  well  fitted,  no  more  strain  should  be  used 
than  is  necessary  to  bring  the  joints  well  up,  and  no  work 
should  be  glued  unless  the  joints  fit  well.  In  any  case, 
the  outside  screw  should  be  turned  back  a  quarter  or  a  half 
a  turn  after  the  glue  has  set ;  this  will  relieve  the  strain, 
and  add  much  to  the  life  of  the  handscrew. 

In  gluing  work  which  requires  several  handscrews  to 
hold  it  while  the  glue  is  setting,  the  handles  of  the  outside 
screws  all  should  point  one  way,  which  allows  the  work  to 


FIG.  87.  —  CORRECT  USE  OF  HANDSCREW. 


TOOLS  105 

be  handled  much  more  easily,  as  the  handles  of  the  middle 
screws  will  form  an  even  bearing  upon  the  floor.  If  this 
is  not  done,  the  outside  screws  will  be  apt  to  be  broken 
when  a  heavy  piece  of  work  is  being  glued  and  handled; 
as  the  weight  of  the  work  will  rest  upon  the  screws  which 
bear  upon  the  floor. 

(C.)  Before  using  new  handscrews,  the  screws  should  be 
treated  with  beeswax  and  beef  tallow,  or  with  black  lead 
mixed  with  oil  or  with  wax.  The  latter  compound  is  very 
dirty  ;  the  former  lubricates  the  screws  perfectly.  The 
screws  should  be  heated,  and  the  lubricant  applied  hot. 

60.  (A.)  A  grindstone  of  good  quality,  from  20"  to  26" 
in  diameter,  is  indispensable  to  a  woodworking  shop,  and 
should  be  used  frequently,  as  the  efficiency  of  cutting  tools 
is  much  increased  if  they  are  kept  well  ground,  and  much 
time  may  be  saved  in  whetting  them. 

(B.)  In  selecting  a  grindstone,  be  sure  that  it  is  true 
and  round,  and  of  a  coarse,  even  grit,  which  can  be  quite 
satisfactorily  determined  by  examining  several  and  select- 
ing the  coarsest,  as  that  will  doubtlessly  be  a  fast  cutting 
stone. 

(C.)  The  stone  should  be  carefully  centered  and 
mounted  upon  a  frame;  the  face  may  be  kept  true  by 
means  of  a  file  or  other  hard  steel  being  held  against  it 
as  it  revolves,  or  a  piece  of  J"  or  f  "  gas  pipe  revolved  from 
side  to  side  of  the  stone  as  it  is  turned.  Never  allow  a 
stone  to  rest  with  one  side  in  the  water,  as  it  will  be  made 
softer  and  heavier  upon  that  side,  and  soon  worn  out  of 
true. 

(D.)  Do  not  use  one  place  upon  the  surface  of  the  stone 
continually,  or  a  groove  will  quickly  be  worn  there ;  in- 


106  ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 

stead,  keep  the  tool  moving  from  side  to  side.  If  properly 
cared  for,  a  stone  will  hold  its  face  indefinitely. 

61.  Emery,  corundum,  carborundum,  and  other  artificial 
abrasive  wheels  have  in  many  cases  supplanted  the  grind- 
stone,  as  they  cut  much  more  rapidly.     Any  one  not 
accustomed  to  using  them  must  be  careful  that  the  temper 
of  the  tool  is  not  destroyed,  as  the  wheel  runs  at  a  high 

rate  of  speed,  and  a  tool  in 
unskillful  hands  is  easily 
burned.  To  avoid  this,  the 
tool  should  be  held  lightly 

FIG.  88.  —  EMERY  WHEEL  DRESSER.      .      ,     _        ,  .  ,, 

but  firmly  against  the  stone, 

and  frequently  dipped  in  water  to  cool  it.  If  an  emery 
wheel  burns  badly,  it  may  be  because  it  needs  dressing ; 
for  this  purpose  a  diamond  emery  wheel  dresser  is  the 
best,  but  on  account  of  its  cost,  various  devices  have 
been  patented  to  accomplish  the  same  result,  one  of  which 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  88. 

62.  Whetstones.  —  (A.)  These  are  used  to  give  to  a  tool 
the  keen  edge  necessary  to  cut "  wood  smoothly.      The 
natural  stone  in  most  common  use  is  the  "  Washita  stone/' 
which  is  quarried  in  the  Ozark  Mountains,  and  is  thought 
by  many  to  be  the  best  natural  stone  for  the  general  use 
of  the  wood-worker;  it  is  fast  cutting,  and  when  of  the 
best  quality  is  of  even  texture. 

(B.)  Many  workmen  prefer  an  " Arkansas  stone,"  as  it  is 
finer  and  harder  than  the  Washita.  It  is  also  more  ex- 
pensive, however,  and  is  better  adapted  to  the  use  of 
woodcarvers  and  engravers  than  to  the  use  of  wood-workers 
in  general.  It  is  usually  not  so  fast  cutting  as  the  best  of 
the  Washita  stones,  but  a  finer  edge  may  be  obtained  by 


TOOLS  107 

its  use.  There  are  other  natural  stones,  but  none  so 
generally  used  as  the  above.  The  purchase  of  a  natural 
stone  is  to  a  great  extent  a  lottery,  as  only  about  one 
stone  in  ten  has  a  perfectly  even  texture,  is  free  from 
cracks,  and  has  reasonably  good  cutting  qualities. 

(C.)  If  a  stone  needs  truing,  lay  a  piece  of  coarse  sand- 
paper upon  a  board,  and  rub  the  stone  over  it  until  it  has 
been  ground  down.  The  best  place,  however,  to  true  up 
a  whetstone  is  upon  the  horizontal  stone  of  a  marble 
worker ;  this  is  a  large  grindstone,  several  feet  in  diam- 
eter, mounted  on  a  vertical  shaft,  upon  which  are  placed 
pieces  of  marble  to  be  ground  to  a  flat  surface. 

(D.)  Artificial  oilstones,  made  of  emery,  corundum, 
carborundum,  and  other  artificial  abrasives,  are  coming 
rapidly  into  use,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  grindstones,  even- 
tually will  supplant  all  others  in  many  occupations,  as 
they  cut  faster  than  any  natural  stone,  may  be  made  of 
any  degree  of  fineness,  and  are  of  absolutely  even  texture. 
They  are  also  able  to  resist  many  accidents  which  would 
destroy  a  natural  stone. 

(E.)  Slip  stones  are  used  to  sharpen  gouges  and  curved 
tools  of  all  kinds,  and  may  be  made  in  any  desirable  shape. 
An  oblong  stone,  8"  x  1"  x  1",  is  the  size  of  stone  in  most 
general  use  by  the  wood-worker,  and  should  be  fitted  into 
a  box  or  piece  of  wood  with  a  cover  to  keep  it  clean.  It 
may  be  laid  either  flat  or  on  its  edge,  as  suits  the  workman, 
though  the  stone  may  be  kept  true  more  easily  if  it  is  set 
on  its  edge. 

(F.)  The  use  of  the  oilstone  is  described  under  topic 
40,  A.  The  oil  used  should  be  a  kind  that  will  not  gum ; 
its  purpose  is  to  prevent  the  glassiness  which  is  caused  by 


108  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

the  friction  of  the  tool  over  the  stone.  Common  machine 
oil  is  used  by  many,  lard  oil  by  others,  and  kerosene,  or 
coal  oil,  is  claimed  by  many  workmen  to  be  the  only  oil 
suitable  for  use  upon  an  oilstone.  Any  one  of  these  oils 
will  give  satisfactory  results,  but  kerosene  keeps  the  stone 
cleaner,  thereby  adding  to  its  efficiency,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose lubricates  quite  as  well  as  any  of  those  above-men- 
tioned. 

63.  (A.)  Files  are  used  for  many  purposes  by  wood- 
workers. An  assortment  consisting  of  4"  and  6"  slim  taper, 
or  three-cornered,  files;  8"  and  10"  flat,  or  bastard,  files ; 
8",  10",  and  12"  round  files;  and  8"  and  12'  'half  round  wood 
files  and  rasps  should  be  in  every  carpenter's  kit.  The 
4"  slim  taper  files  should  be  used  upon  the  finer  saws,  and 
the  6"  upon  the  coarser  ones,  though  the  latter  are  used 
by  some  workmen  for  both  saws.  Upon  jobbing  work,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  a  few  warding  and  knife  files  to  use 
upon  keys  and  odd  jobs,  and  also  to  sharpen  bits. 

Files  and  rasps  are  made  of  every  shape  and  size,  and 
for  every  purpose.  Wood  files  usually  are  tempered  to 
stand  lead  or  soft  brass,  and  should  never  be  used  upon 
anything  harder. 

In  drawing  a  file  back  between  the  cuts,  do  not  allow 
it  to  drag,  as  it  is  injured  thereby  about  as  much  as  when 
it  is  cutting. 

(B.)  There  are  a  great  many  other  tools  and  appliances 
used  by  the  wood-worker  with  which  the  workman  should 
be  familiar,  but  it  is  not  necessary  to  describe  them, 
as  the  above-mentioned  are  the  most  essential  tools 
common  to  all  forms  of  woodworking.  There  is  no  im- 
portant principle  involved  in  the  construction,  care,  and 


TOOLS  109 

use  of  woodworking  tools  which  is  not  discussed  in  this 
chapter,  and  the  student  who  becomes  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  matter  treated  will  have  little  trouble  in  learn- 
ing to  handle  other  tools. 

64.    Saw    filing.  —  (A.)    This    is    an    accomplishment 
which   every  young  wood-worker  should   master,  as  its 


FIG.  89.  —  JOINTING  A  SAW. 

possession  will  save  expense  and  inconvenience,  and  add 
much  to  his  efficiency  as  a  workman. 

(B.)  The  first  step  in  sharpening  a  saw  is  to  examine 
the  edge  carefully  to  see  if  the  teeth  are  of  an  even  length ; 
if  they  are  not,  they  should  be  jointed.  This  is  done  by 
using  a  flat  file  held  perfectly  square  in  a  block,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  89.  One  or  two  light  strokes  usually  will  be  enough 
to  make  all  the  teeth  of  the  same  length.  The  edge  of 
the  saw  should  round  slightly  in  the  middle,  say  about 
I"  for  a  24"  or  a  26"  saw.  If  the  edge  is  perfectly  straight, 
it  should  not  be  jointed  to  this  shape  at  once,  but  a  little 
at  each  time  for  several  filings. 


110 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


FIG.  90.  — HAND  SAW  SET. 


(C.)  After  jointing  the  saw,  b.e  sure  that  it  is  properly 
set.  This  may  be  done  by  a  saw  set,  of  which  there  are 
several  patterns  in  use;  these  are  all  of  two  types,  the 

hand  set  (Fig.  90),  and  the 
cnvil  set  (Fig.  91).  Either  of 
these  forms  is  efficient,  but 
as  it  is  more  convenient,  the 
hand  set  is  more  commonly 
used.  Do  not  give  the  saw 
too  much  set,  or  it  will  not 
cut  smoothly,  but  will  break  the  wood  badly  on  the  back 
side  of  the  cut ;  there  is  also  greater  danger  of  breaking 
the  teeth,  and  as  more  wood  is  cut  out,  more  muscle  must 
be  applied.  The  point  of  the  teeth  only  should  be  set, 
and  care  should  be  used  that  the  blade  of  the  saw  is  not 
sprung,  which  will  be  apt  to  result  from  setting  the  teeth 
too  far  from  the  point. 

A  saw  to  be  used  upon  green  lumber  should  have 
coarser  teeth  and  more  set  than  one  which  is  to  be  used 
upon  thoroughly  dry,  seasoned  wood.  A  panel  saw  in- 
tended for  use  upon  fine  finishing  work 
usually  is  ground  so  thin  upon  the 
back  that  it  needs  little  or  no  set. 
Some  workmen  set  a  saw  so  heavily 
that  it  will  do  for  several  filings ; 
while  this  is  satisfactory  for  a  soft  saw 
to  be  used  upon  common  work,  it  is  not 
a  good  plan  to  treat  a  fine,  hard  saw 
this  way,  though  the  latter  may  be  touched  up  once  or  twice. 
(D.)  In  filing,  it  is  important  that  the  file  should  be 
carried  at  the  same  angle  the  entire  length  of  both  sides 


FIG.  91.  —  ANVIL,  SAW 
SET. 


TOOLS 


111 


So/tuteoli 


Ccfoa  o-f  3a/ur 


Hardwood 


FIG.  92.  —  ANGLE  or  THE  FILE 
WITH  THE  EDGE  OF  THE 
SAW. 


of  the  blade.     For  a  cutting-off  saw,  the  file  should  be 

carried  at  an  angle  with  the  side  of  the  blade  of  from  60° 

for  soft  wood  to  70°  for  hard  wood,  as  shown  in  Fig.  92 ; 

and  for  general  work,  at  an  angle 

about  halfway  between  the  two. 

The  file  may  be  carried  horizon- 
tally,  as    at   aa,    Fig.   93,   which 

makes  all  the  teeth  of  the  same 

size  ;  as  at  A,  Fig.  94;  or  it  may  be 

carried  as  at  66,  Fig.  93,  which  will 

make  the  teeth  of  the  shape  shown 

at  B,  Fig.  94.     The  latter  method 

is  preferred  by  many  workmen,  as 

it  allows  the  file  to  run  more  smoothly,  thus  lengthening 

its  life  a  little.     There  is  no  difference  in  the  efficiency  of 

the  saws  filed  by  these  methods,  but  if  filed  as  at  66,  Fig. 

93,  it  is  more  difficult  to  keep  the  teeth  of  the  same  size, 

and  to  make  a  good-looking  job. 

In  filing  a  cutting-off  saw,  the  top  of  the  file  should  be 

held  more  or  less  slantingly,  as  shown  in  Fig.  95,  according 
to  the  hook  which  it  is  desired  that 
the  teeth  shall  have.  The  more 
hook  a  saw  has,  the  faster  it  will 
cut,  but  the  cut  will  be  rougher  in 
proportion.  Experience  is  necessary 
to  discover  just  the  right  angles  at 
which  the  file  should  be  held  ;  after 
considerable  practice,  the  file  will 

naturally  drop  into  the  correct  position. 

File  every  tooth  upon  each  side  of  the  saw  to  a  perfect 

point,  one  half  of  the  filing  being  done  from  each  side ;  file 


FIG.  93.  —  ANGLE  OF  THE 
FILE  WITH  THE  SIDES 
OF  THE  SAW. 


112 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


AVWWW 


FIG.  94.  —  RESULTS  OF 
FILINGS  AS  AT  aa  AND 
66,  FIG.  93. 


the  entire  length  from  one  side,  then  reverse  the  saw  and 
file  from  the  other  side.  This  cannot  always  be  the  exclu- 
sive practice  if  a  saw  is  in  very  bad  shape,  because  if  the 
teeth  are  of  uneven  sizes,  care  must 
be  used,  and  more  filed  from  some 
teeth  than  from  others.  It  may,  in 
such  a  case,  be  necessary  to  go  over 
the  saw  two  or  three  times,  but  it 
should  be  done  very  carefully,  so  that 
the  bevel  of  the  teeth  may  be  pre- 
served and  their  length  kept  the  same.  Observe  each 
tooth,  and  press  toward  the  point  or  the  handle  of  the 
saw,  as  may  be  necessary.  The  file  should  be  carried 
with  its  point  toward  the  point  of  the  saw,  filing  the  cut- 
ting or  the  front  side  of  the  tooth  of  the  farther  side  of 
the  saw,  and  the  back  of  the  tooth  next  ahead  on  the 
nearer  side  with  the  same  stroke.  If  the  point  of  the  saw 
is  carried  toward  the  handle  of  the  saw,  it  makes  the  teeth 
chatter,  and  upon  a  hard  saw,  may  make  them  break.  It 
also  causes  an  excruciating  noise,  and  shortens  the  life 
of  a  file,  as  the  continuous 
chatter  against  its  teeth 
will  soon  break  them,  and 
destroy  the  file. 

A  ripsaw  requires  more 

set  than  a  cutting-off  saw, 

and  if,  as  usual,  the  file 

is  carried  square  with  the  blade  both  ways,  the  saw  may 

be  filed  from  one  side. 

After  a  saw  is  filed,  it  should  be  laid  upon  a  perfectly 
flat  surface,  and  given  a  light  touch  with  a  flat  file  or  a 


FIG.  95.  —  METHOD  OF  CARRYING  A  FILE 

THE  H°°K  °F  A  CuiTING" 


TOOLS 


113 


whetstone,  to  remove  the  burr  caused  by  the  file,  as  in 
Fig.  96. 

The  teeth  of  the  compass  saw  should  be  a  combination 
of  the  rip-  and  the  cutting-off  saw,  as  it  does  the  work  of 
both  as  occasion  requires.  The  teeth  should  be  nearly 
as  hooking  as  those  of  a  ripsaw,  and  the  front  teeth  filed 


J| 


FIG.  96.  —  REMOVING  THE  BURR  AFTER  FILING  A  SAW. 

at  an  angle  of  about  80°  with  the  side  of  the  saw.  In 
filing  the  back  of  the  teeth,  the  hand  should  be  carried  a 
little  lower  than  horizontal.  Figure  41,  C,  shows  three 
views  of  the  teeth  of  a  compass  saw. 


SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

27.  What  should   be   the   quality  of   all   mechanics'   tools?     Is  a 
good,  serviceable  tool  always  finely  finished  ?    Are  tools  made  espe- 
cially for  some  dealer  always  reliable  ?     What  is  the  safest  method  to 
follow  in  buying  tools  ?     How  may  the  efficiency  of  a  tool  be  known  ? 

28.  Describe  two  forms  of  benches.     Describe  a  modern  vise. 

29.  Describe  the  rule  in  common  use. 

KING'S  WOODWORK  —  8 


114  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

30.  For  what  is  the  try-square  used  ?    Why  should  special  care  be 
used  in  purchasing  one?     How  may  a  square  be  tested? 

31.  Compare  the  steel  square  and  the  try-square. 

32.  Describe  the  bevel  and  its  use. 

33.  For  what  is  the  gauge  used?     Should  the  graduations  of  the 
gauge  be  depended  upon  in  setting  it  ?     What  special  form  of  gauge  is 
useful  ? 

34.  What  will  be  the  result  if  the  head  of  a  ha'mmer  is  not  properly 
tempered  ?     Why  is  the  eye  shaped  as  it  is  ?     How  is  the  handle  fast- 
ened to  the  head  ?     Describe  the  wood  necessary  for  a  hammer  handle. 
How  should  a  hammer  be  hung  ?     How  should  nails  be  driven  so  that 
they  will  hold  the  best  ?     What  should  be  guarded  against  in  driving 
up  ceiling  or  matched  boards?     How  and  why  should  nail  heads  be 
sunk  below  the  joint  surface? 

35.  For  what  is  a  hatchet  used  ?     Describe  two  ways  of  sharpening 
a  hatchet. 

36.  What  is  the  principal  use  of  a  mallet  ?     Describe  and  compare 
two  forms  of  mallets. 

37.  What  are  the  two  parts  of  a  saw  ?     Describe  the  use  of  a  ripsaw. 
After  what  tool  is  it  modeled  ?     After  what  tool  are  the  teeth  of  a 
cutting-off  saw  modeled?     What  kind  of  saw  combines  the  teeth  of 
both  ?     For  what  is  it  used  ?     Why  is  it  made  of  softer  metal  than  are 
other  saws?     Describe  a  saw  adapted  to  jobbing  work.     Describe  the 
backsaw.     How  can  the  blade  be  straightened  if  it  is  sprung  ?     What 
kind  of  saw  is  used  for  fine  work?     How  should  the  thickness  of  the 
back  of  a  saw  compare  with  its  cutting  edge  ?     What  is  gained  by  this  ? 
What  test  should  the  blade  of  a  high-grade  saw  be  able  to  stand  ?     What 
are  the  best  sizes  for  saws  ?     Compare  the  practical  features  of  a  hard 
and  a  medium  hand  saw.     How  should  a  saw  be  held?     How  much 
force  should  be  used  upon  a  saw  ?     How  do  some  workmen  change  the 
handles  of  their  saws  to  make  the  saws  run  more  easily  ? 

38.  Describe  the  knife  commonly  used  by  the  wood-worker.     Why 
is  the  form  of  blade  used  in  manual-training  schools  more  suitable  for 
whittling  than  the  form  used  by  the  wood-worker  ? 

39.  Compare  the  old-fashioned  and  the  modern  planes.     Describe 
the  mechanism  of  the  modern  plane  and  its  action.     What  should  be 


TOOLS  115 

the  condition  of  the  face  of  a  plane  ?     How  should  a  plane  be  held  so 
that  one  may  see  the  adjustment  of  the  cutter  ? 

40.  Of  what  use  is  the  cap  iron  in  grinding  a  plane  bit  ?    How  may 
a  grindstone  be  prevented  from  wearing  unevenly?     Upon  which  side 
of  the  bit  should  all  the  grinding  be  done  ?     At  what  angle  should  it  be 
ground?    What  is  the  objection  to  grinding  a  bit  too  thin?    Where 
should  the  cap  iron  be  while  whetting  ?     How  should  the  bevel  of  the 
bit  be  held  upon  the  stone  ?     Describe  the  correct  action  of  the  arm 
while  whetting.     How  should  the  whetstone  be  prevented  from  wear- 
ing unevenly  ?     What  motion  should  be  avoided  in  whetting  ?    What 
is  the  correct  shape  of  the  edge  of  a  plane  iron  ?     What  is  the  use  of  the 
cap  iron  ?     What  is  apt  to  result  if  the  cap  iron  is  too  thick  ? 

41.  What  plane  is  used  generally  for  rough  work?     In  what  way 
does  the  edge  of  its  iron  differ  from  that  of  other  planes  ? 

42.  What  plane  is  used  for  straightening  edges  and  surfaces  ?    What 
should  be  the  shape  of  the  edge  of  the  iron  of  this  plane  ?     How  should 
a  plane  be  carried  to  joint  an  edge  square  ? 

43.  What  plane  is  used  in  smoothing  fine  vwork  ?     What  should  be 
the  position  of  the  cap  in  smoothing  hard,  cross-grained  wood?     How 
should  edge  tools  of  all  kinds  be  used  in  relation  to  the  grain  ? 

44.  Compare  the  construction  and  the  use  of  the  block  plane  with 
the  above  planes. 

45.  What  position  should  be  taken  when  at  work  with  edge  tools  of 
any  sort  ?     Should  the  workman  bend  from  his  hips  or  from  his  shoul- 
ders ?     What  should  be  guarded  against  at  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  the  strokes  of  a  plane?     Is   it   ever   economy  to  work  with  dull 
tools  ?     How  should  a  plane  be  drawn  back  after  a  stroke  ? 

46.  What  are  the  two  forms  of  chisels?     Describe  the  peculiarities 
and  uses  of  each.     Describe  a  durable  form  of  chisel  handle.     Should  a 
mallet  or  hammer  be  used  in  pounding  upon  a  chisel  handle  ?     Why  ? 
Describe  and  give  reasons  for  the  difference  in  the  grinding  of  the  paring 
and  the  mortising  chisel.    Describe  a  set  of  chisels.    What  is  a  slice,  or 
slick? 

47.  Describe  a  gouge.     What  is  the  difference  between  an  inside  and 
an  outside  gouge  ? 

48.  Describe  the  form  and  uses  of  a  drawshave.     Compare  the  utility 


116  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

of  the  rigid-  and  the  folding-handled  drawshaves.     How  should  the 
edge  of  a  rigid-handled  drawshave  be  protected  ? 

49.  Describe  the  form  and  the  use  of  a  spokeshave. 

50.  What  is  the  form  of  bit  in  most  common  use?     Describe  the 
different  parts  of  an  auger  bit  and  their  functions.     How  may  the  clog- 
ging of  a  bit  be  prevented  ?     If  a  bit  should  become  clogged  in  a  hole, 
how  should  it  be  drawn  out  ?     Describe  the  form  and  the  use  of  a  Ger- 
man bit;  of  a  twist  drill;  of  an  extension  bit;   of  a  center  bit.     De- 
scribe the  method  of  sharpening  a  bit.     Demonstrate.     What  part 
of  a  bit  should  never  be  filed  ?     Why  ? 

51.  Describe  the  form   and   the   use   of  bitbraces.     Describe   the 
ratchet  brace.     Which  is  the  more  convenient  brace  for  common  use  ? 

52.  What  should  be  the  shape  and  the  temper  of  the  point  of  a  screw- 
driver ?    What  should  be  the  shape  of  the  handle  ?     What  is  the  value 
of  a  screwdriver  bit  ? 

53.  Describe  the  use  of  compasses ;  of  calipers. 

54.  Describe  the  use  of  pliers.     What  is  a  good  form  for  common  use  ? 
Should  wire-cutting  nippers  be  used  to  pull  nails  ?    Why  ? 

55.  For  what  is  a  scraper  used  ?     What  is  the  best  size  for  a  scraper  ? 
Describe  handles  for  scrapers.      Describe  a  leather  palm  and  its  use. 

56.  Describe  a  burnisher.     How  should  a  scraper  be  sharpened  for 
rough  work?    For  fine  work?     How  may  a  burnisher  be  used  when 
the  edge  of  the  scraper  has  been  turned  over  too  far,  or  when  the  edge  is 
not  sufficiently  keen  ?    How  should  the  scraper  be  used  in  relation  to 
the  grain? 

57.  Describe  the  best  form  of  nail  set. 

58.  What  is  the  form  of  wrench  in  most  common  use  ? 

59.  How  long  ought  handscrews  to  last  ?     What  should  be  the  posi- 
tion of  the  jaws  when  in  use  ?     Which  screw  should  be  set  first  ?    How 
should  handscrews  be  treated  to  make  them  work  more  easily  ? 

60.  What  are  the  characteristics  of  a  good  grindstone  ?    How  should 
a  grindstone  be  trued  ? 

61.  Compare    emery    wheels    and    grindstones.     What    should    be 
guarded  against  in  the  use  of  an  emery  wheel  ? 

62.  Why  is  it  necessary  to  use  a  whetstone  ?    What  kind  of  stone  is 
commonly  used  ?    What  is  a  finer  kind  of  stone  ?     Compare  the  two 


TOOLS  117 

kinds.  How  may  whetstones  be  trued  ?  What  kind  of  stones  are  com- 
ing into  use?  Compare  the  wearing  qualities  of  stones  laid  flat  and 
edgeways.  What  forms  of  stones  are  used  for  gouges  ?  What  kinds  of 
oils  are  used  for  oil  or  whetstones? 

63.  What  kinds  of  files  are  used  for  saw  filing?     Describe  the  files 
generally  used  by  wood-workers.     Describe  wood  rasps  and  files. 

64.  Describe  the  jointing  of  a  saw.     What  should  be  the  shape  of 
the  cutting  edge  of  a  saw?     Describe  the  purpose,  and  demonstrate 
the  process,  of  setting  a  saw.     Compare  the  set  of  saws  for  coarse  and 
fine  work.     At  what  angle  with  the  sides  of  the  blade  should  a  file  be 
carried  in  filing  a  cutting-off  saw  ?     Compare  the  results  of  carrying  the 
file  horizontally  and  with  an  upward  inclination.     At  what  angle  with 
the  sides  of  the  blade  should  the  file  be  carried  in  filing  a  ripsaw  ?     If  the 
saw  is  in  bad  shape,  should  the  attempt  be  made  to  bring  it  to  a  finished 
point  when  going  over  it  the  first  time  ?     What  should  be  the  direction 
of  the  point  of  the  file  while  it  is  cutting  ?     Compare  the  set  of  the  rip- 
saw and  that  of  the  cutting-off  saw.     Compare  the  teeth  of  the  compass 
saw  with  those  of  others. 


CHAPTER  V 
GLUE  AND  SANDPAPER 

65.  Different  kinds  of  glue.  —  (A.)  Wood-workers  use 
both  liquid  and  sheet  or  stick  glue,  but  as  the  former 
requires  little  skill  in  its  use,  we  will  deal  principally  with 
the  latter,  which  is  made  of  hides,  sinews,  bones,  and 
waste  material  of  slaughterhouses.  Different  grades  of 
glue  are  made  of  various  kinds  of  refuse,  but  the  processes 
of  treating  them  all  are  similar. 

(B.)  The  material  from  which  glue  is  to  be  made  is 
steeped  in  lime  water  at  low  temperature,  or  subjected  to 
a  chemical  treatment  for  a  sufficient  time  to  separate  the 
fat  from  the  fiber.  The  latter  is  then  washed  in  clean 
water  and  boiled  down  to  gelatin,  which  is  spread  upon 
wires  to  dry  and  harden,  when  it  is  ready  for  use. 

(C.)  Ground  glue  makes  up  more  readily  than  that 
which  comes  in  sheets,  and  therefore  is  preferred  by  many 
workmen.  It  is  frequently  adulterated,  but  if  made  upon 
honor,  it  is  as  good  as  the  glue  from  which  it  is  made,  and 
does  not  deteriorate  unless  kept  for  a  long  time  in  a  damp 
place.  As  it  is  not  possible  to  apply  certain  tests  to  ground 
glue  which  may  be  used  upon  that  in  sheets  or  sticks, 
many  workmen  prefer  not  to  use  it  unless  sure  of  its 
quality. 

(D.)  The  highest-priced  glue  is  not  always  the  best  for 
all  purposes,  and  a  dealer  who  handles  different  grades  can 

118 


GLUE   AND   SANDPAPER  119 

generally  advise  which  should  be  used,  though  the  medium 
grade  in  common  use  is  usually  satisfactory  for  general 
work. 

(E.)  It  is  impossible  to  give  infallible  rules  for  testing 
glue  in  the  stick,  or  to  say  that  glue  should  be  of  any 
special  color,  or  that  it  should  be  either  transparent  or 
opaque ;  but,  in  general,  glue  suitable  for  ordinary  work 
will  be  of  a  reddish,  yellowish,  or  light  brownish  color,  clear 
and  transparent,  and  not  offensive  to  either  taste  or  smell, 
though 'some  of  the  best  makes  of  glue  are  absolutely 
opaque.  Good  glue  will  swell  in  cold  water,  but  will  not 
dissolve  until  it  has  nearly  reached  the  boiling  point.  It 
will  also  absorb  more  water  than  will  poor  glue,  and  is 
therefore  more  economical.  Any  test  which  depends  upon 
the  brittleness  or  dryness  of  the  glue  is  not  reliable,  as 
a  'somewhat  damp,  good  glue  will  not  stand  this  test  as 
well  as  a  poor  glue  that  is  very  dry.  If  conditions  are  the 
same,  and  comparison  is  possible,  it  is  fairly  safe  to  assume 
that  if  a  good  glue  is  cut  with  a  sharp  knife,  a  hard,  elastic 
shaving  will  result,  while  a  poor  glue  will  give  a  shaving 
which  is  extremely  brittle,  and  will  break  into  little  pieces. 

A  safe  way  to  test  glue  is  to  prepare  a  number  of  pieces 
of  the  same  kind  of  wood,  1"  square  and  about  12"  long, 
fit  them  perfectly  end  to  end  in  pairs,  and  glue  as  many 
of  them  together  as  there  are  samples  of  glue  to  be  tested. 
After  the  glue  is  thoroughly  hard,  clamp  one  of  the  pieces 
of  each  pair  to  a  bench  top,  with  the  joint  coinciding  with 
the  edge.  Hang  a  pail  about  10"  from  the  joint  on  the 
piece  which  projects  over  the  edge  of  the  bench,  and  allow 
sand  to  run  into  it  slowly,  until  the  joint  breaks.  Repeat 
this  process  with  each  pair  which  has  been  glued  up,  and 


120  ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 

the  amount  of  sand  necessary  to  break  the  joint  will  fur- 
nish a  basis  of  comparison  between  the  different  varieties 
of  glue  tested. 

(F.)  Glue  should  be  soaked  in  cold  or  lukewarm  water 
before  being  put  into  a  glue  pot,  which  should  be  a  double 
vessel,  with  the  glue  in  the  inside  pot,  and  the  hot  water  or 
steam  in  the  outer  jacket.  In  making  up  glue,  it  should  be 
brought  to  the  boiling  point  until  melted,  and  then  removed 
from  the  heat,  for  if  kept  continually  hot,  it  loses  much 
of  its  strength  by  being  cooked  too  much,  as  this  makes 
continual  thinning  necessary. 

If  time  will  not  permit,  the  preliminary  soaking  may  be 
dispensed  with,  and  the  ha'rd  glue  put  at  once  in  the  hot 
water,  in  which  case  it  must  be  stirred  frequently  while 
melting,  or  it  will  form  a  mass.  If  the  water  boils  out  of 
the  outside  kettle,  and  the  glue  burns,  throw  it  away,  as  it 
is  worthless. 

Glue  should  be  thinned  with  cold  water,  after  which  it 
should  be  allowed  to  become  thoroughly  heated  before 
using ;  in  the  shops,  this  is  not  always  done,  as  there  may 
not  be  time  to  allow  the  glue  to  become  heated  again; 
therefore  it  is  quite  the  common  custom  to  thin  the  glue 
with  hot  water. 

(G.)  Paint  brushes,  or  other  brushes  in  which  the 
bristles  are  set  in  glue,  are  not  suitable  for  use  in  hot  glue, 
and  those  made  especially  for  this  purpose  should  be 
purchased.  For  very  small  brushes,  a  strip  of  basswood 
bark  may  be  soaked  and  pounded  about  half  an  inch  from 
the  end ;  these  are  satisfactory  for  small  work. 

66.  How  to  use  glue.  —  (A.)  Glue  should  be  used  as 
hot  as  possible,  and  of  about  the  consistency  of  cream. 


GLUE  AND   SANDPAPER  121 

The  pieces  to  be  glued  should  be  heated  thoroughly  and 
the  gluing  done  in  a  warm  room. 

(B.)  In  factories,  where  it  is  possible,  the  gluing  is  done 
in  a  specially  fitted  room  which  contains  all  necessary 
appliances.  Vertical  and  horizontal  coils  of  steam  pipes 
surround  the  room,  both  to  furnish  heat  for  the  room,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  heating  the  material  to  be  glued,  which 
should  be  so  hot  that  the  hand  cannot  rest  upon  it  for 
more  than  a  few  seconds.  In  a  room  of  this  sort,  the 
temperature  is  maintained  at  from  110°  to  130°  F. 

(C.)  If  the  best  possible  results  are  wanted,  a  scratch 
plane  should  be  used.  This  is  a  tool  similar  to  a  smoother, 
only  its  cutter  is  nearly  vertical,  and  it  has  teeth  like  a 
fine  saw  which  will  scratch  the  wood,  thus  giving  a  better 
hold  for  the  glue. 

(D.)  It  is  important  that  all  clamps,  handscrews,  and 
other  appliances  which  are  likely  to  be  needed  should  be 
set  as  nearly  as  possible  the  desired  size,  and  so  arranged 
as  to  be  reached  easily,  for  when  the  glue  is  applied,  there 
should  not  be  the  slightest  hesitation  or  delay  in  getting 
the  work  together  and  the  clamps  on.  The  utmost  speed 
and  surety  of  motion  is  absolutely  necessary  in  using  hot 
glue ;  therefore  everything  during  the  process  of  the 
work  should  be  foreseen  and  provision  made  for  it  before 
the  glue  is  applied,  for  if  the  glue  is  even  slightly  chilled, 
the  work  will  not  be  so  well  done,  and  the  efficiency  of  the 
glue  will  be  greatly  diminished.  A  novice  should  never 
attempt  more  than  the  simplest  work,  unless  working  with 
a  competent  man. 

(E.)  The  glue  should  be  spread  rapidly  and  evenly  with 
a  brush  of  suitable  size, — a  large  one  for  broad  surfaces 


122  ELEMENTS  OF   WOODWORK 

and  a  small  one  for  small  work.  Glue  should  not  be 
thrown  about  wastefully;  enough  should  be  used  to  cover 
the  surface  completely  but  not  thickly. 

(F.)  In  using  handscrews,  it  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance that  the  jaws  be  kept  parallel  as  described  in  Topic 
59  ;  care  must  be  used  that  more  strain  is  not  placed  upon 
the  handscrews  and  clamps  than  is  necessary  to  bring  the 
joint  together. 

(G.)  Cold  or  liquid  glue  has  supplanted  hot  glue  in 
furniture  repairing,  gluing  up  intricate  work,  and  in 
places  where  it  is  impracticable  to  use  hot  glue  either 
on  account  of  its  setting  too  rapidly,  or  where  heat  is 
not  available.  Liquid  glue  does  not  hold  as  well  nor  as 
permanently  as  hot  glue  when  properly  used,  but  for  many 
kinds  of  work  it  is  perfectly  satisfactory. 

(H.)  In  gluing  rosewood,  or  other  woods  of  a  greasy 
nature,  the  glue  should  be  thinned  with  vinegar,  which  will 
cut  the  grease.  Another  method  of  making  glue  hold  on 
wood  of  this  sort  is  to  chalk  both  members  of  the  joint 
thoroughly,  and  let  it  stand  for  two  or  three  hours,  when 
it  should  be  wiped  off.  This  absorbs  the  grease  on  the 
surface  of  the  wood,  which  allows  the  glue  to  take  hold. 
In  all  gluing,  do  not  allow  the  bare  hand  to  touch  the  joint 
any  more  than  necessary,  as  the  grease  and  perspiration 
will  prevent  the  best  results  from  being  obtained. 

67.  The  testing  of  sandpaper.  —  (A.)  Sandpaper  is 
made  by  covering  paper  with  a  thin  layer  of  glue,  over 
which  is  spread  evenly  a  layer  of  ground  flint  or  glass; 
over  this  is  spread  another  coating  of  glue,  which  firmly 
fastens  the  sand  to  the  paper. 

(B.)    In  buying  sandpaper,  pass  the  finger  over  it  to 


GLUE  AND   SANDPAPER  123 

see  if  the  sand  is  firmly  fastened.  Be  sure  that  the  paper 
is  neither  flimsy  nor  brittle.  Coarse  particles  of  sand  are 
sometimes  found  upon  sandpaper  which  renders  it  worth- 
less ;  these  can  be  detected  only  by  use,  unless  they  are 
very  prominent. 

68.  How  to  use  sandpaper.  —  (A.)  Sandpaper  is  made 
in  numbers,  00,  0,  J,  1,  1J,  2,  2J,  3.  Numbers  00  and  0 
are  very  fine,  and  are  used  in  rubbing  down  shellac  and 
varnish.  Numbers  \  and  1  are  used  in  sandpapering 
mahogany  and  other  fancy  woods,  and  number  1J  is  used 
upon  all  building  finish  but  the  finest ;  the  coarser  num- 
bers are  used  upon  floors,  outside  finish,  and  other  coarse 
work  which  is  to  be  painted,  though  for  a  very  nice  floor, 
1J  is  used,  rarely  anything  finer.  It  is  a  fallacy  to  think 
that  the  finer  the  sandpaper  used,  the  finer  the  job  will  be, 
since  upon  some  kinds  of  woods  fine  sandpaper  will  make 
a  glassy  surface  in  spots  which  will  not  take  the  finish  like 
the  rest  of  the  work.  Sandpapering  is  as  apt  to  detract 
from  the  work  as  it  is  to  improve  it,  for  unless  used  very 
skillfully,  the  character  of  angles  and  small  surfaces  will  be 
changed,  though  it  may  seem  that  the  damage  is  so  slight 
as  to  be  imperceptible.  In  using  sandpaper,  the  workman 
should  guard  against  rounding  off  square  corners  or  de- 
stroying the  form  of  surfaces ;  a  raw  corner,  however, 
should  be  removed  with  a  few  light,  careful  strokes,  as  a 
perfectly  sharp  corner  will  always  be  more  or  less  ragged. 

The  one  who  knows  will  always  notice  the  omissions  of 

details  of  this  sort,  and  will  attribute  such  imperfections 

to  lack  of  skill  or  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  workman. 

It  is  for  the  one  who  knows,  that  all  work  should  be  done 

-  not   for   the   casual  observer  —  and   these  apparently 


124  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

insignificant  details,  rather  than  the  part  of  the  work 
which  may  seem  of  more  importance,  form  the  basis  by 
which  one  workman  judges  the  work  of  another.  In 
nothing  do  small  things  count  more  than  in  making  or 
destroying  a  workman's  reputation. 

(B.)    Keep  the  sandpaper  dry,  and  stored  in  a  dry  place, 
as  moisture  softens  the  glue  so  that  the  sand  may  be  easily 


FIG.  97.  —  USE  OF  SANDPAPER  UPON  A  BROAD  SURFACE. 

rubbed  off.     In  handling  sandpaper,  care  should  be  taken 
that  the  sanded  sides  are  not  rubbed  together. 

(C.)  In  preparing  to  sandpaper  a  flat  surface,  or  for 
general  work,  a  sheet  of  sandpaper  should  be  torn  in 
halves  the  short  way  of  the  paper,  and  one  half  should 
be  folded  back  to  back,  and  held  (not  tacked)  around  the 
block  with  the  hand,  as  in  Fig.  97.  The  act  of  grasping 
the  block  for  the  work  will  hold  the  sandpaper,  and  any 
device  for  holding  the  sandpaper  on  the  block  is  worthless, 
being  considered  by  the  workman  as  a  mark  of  the 
novice.  The  block  should  be  about  3"  x  4"  x  ",  and 


GLUE  AND   SANDPAPER  125 

may  be  made  of  wood,  cork,  fiber,  or  any  material  which 
suits  the  taste  of  the  workman. 

If  there  is  much  sandpapering  of  moldings  to  be  done, 
it  is  best  to  make  blocks  which  will  fit  the  contour  of  them, 
as  it  is  very  hard  on  the  hands  to  do  this  work  for  very 
long  at  a  time,  though  nothing  has  ever  been  invented 
which  fits  irregular  forms  as  well  as  the  fingers.  A  piece 
of  sandpaper  should  never  be  used  on  a  piece  of  work  until 
all  the  cutting  by  edge  tools  has  been  done,  as  the  particles  of 
sand  will  enter  the  grain  of  the  wood,  and  any  edge  tools 
used  upon  it  afterward  will  be  quickly  dulled.  Do  not 
use  a  piece  of  sandpaper  so  large  that  any  part  of  it  will 
not  be  under  perfect  control,  as  loose  ends  will  scratch  the 
wood,  and  it  has  an  awkward  and  unworkmanlike  appear- 
ance. Always  work  parallel  with  the  grain,  and  be  sure 
that  all  plane  marks  and  rough  places  are  thoroughly 
rubbed  down.  In  order  to  do  this  well,  it  is  often  necessary 
to  use  considerable  muscle.  This  part  of  the  work  calls 
for  good  judgment,  for  unless  sandpapered  enough,  there 
will  be  places  which  will  show  when  the  finish  is  spread 
on  the  work,  though  they  may  have  been  invisible  befcre. 
No  one  can  tell  as  well  as  the  workman  himself  when  suffi- 
cient sandpapering  has  been  done,  though  it  may  be  evi- 
dent to  any  one  who  knows  the  signs  whether  or  not  the 
work  has  been  done  judiciously.  Upon  a  coarse  job  it  is 
usually  allowable,  and  sometimes  desirable,  to  sandpaper 
across  the  grain,  especially  if  the  work  is  to  be  painted. 

In  order  to  impress  it  upon  the  student,  we  will  repeat 
that  too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  in  the  use  of  sandpaper, 
for  much  oftener  will  an  amateur  injure  a  piece  of  work 
than  improve  it, 


126 


ELEMENTS   OF   WOODWORK 


d 

S 

e 

E 

• 

• 

e 

H 

d 

b 
a 

? 

- 

c 

a 

ii 

* 

a 

ct 

FIG.  98. —  SANDPAPERING  PANEL 

WORK. 
(For  explanation,  see  text.) 


(D.)  In  sandpapering  panel  work,  as  in  Fig.  98,  the 
panels  (a)  should  be  smoothed,  scraped,  and  sandpapered, 
and  the  edges  of  the  stiles  (6),  rails  (d),  and  muntins  (e) 
should  be  treated  the  same  way 
before  the  panel  work  is  put  to- 
gether; an  exception  to  this  in 
regard  to  the  panels  may  be  made 
if  the  panel  frame  is  constructed 
in  such  a  way  as  to  allow  the  panels 
to  be  put  in  place  after  it  is  to- 
gether, in  which  case  the  panels 
may  be  smoothed  at  any  time. 
Upon  very  fine  work  the  panels 
are  sometimes  polished  before 
being  put  in  .place,  as  it  is  diffi- 
cult for  the  finisher  to  work  into  the  corners  after  the  panels 
are  in  place.  After  the  faces  of  the  stiles,  rails,  and  muntins 
have  been  planed  and  scraped,  they  should  be  sandpapered 
in  the  order  named,  working  with  the  sandpaper  over  a 
sharp-cornered  block  close  to  the  edges  of  the  pieces, 
being  careful  not  to  drag  the  paper  over  the  face  of  the 
pieces  which  join  at  right  angles.  The  stiles,  rails,  and 
muntins  should  be  sandpapered  in  the  order  in  which 
they  are  mentioned.  If  the  sandpaper  runs  over  the  rails 
a  little  when  sandpapering  the  muntins,  or  over  the  stiles 
when  sanding  the  rails,  it  will  do  no  harm,  as  a  couple  of 
light,  careful  strokes  parallel  with  the  grain  will  be  suffi- 
cient to  remove  any  scratches  which  may  be  made. 

In  sanding  mahogany,  or  any  wood  of  which  the  grain 
rubs  up,  make  the  strokes  in  one  direction  only,  instead 
of  back  and  forth.  Sometimes  wax  is  rubbed  in  to  hold 


GLUE   AND   SANDPAPER  127 

the  grain  down  upon  cheap  work,  but  this  is  not  recom- 
mended, as  that  place  will  not  take  the  stain  or  the  finish 
like  the  rest  of  the  wood.  A  very  thin  coat  of  shellac  is 
used  for  the  same  purpose ;  this  is  less  objectionable,  but 
should  be  avoided  if  possible. 


SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

65.  Of  what  material  is  glue  made?     Describe  briefly  the  process 
of  making  glue.     What  kind  of  glue  is  best  for  general  work  ?     Is 
ground  glue  always  reliable  ?     What  is  the  chief  advantage  in  its  use  ? 
Is  high-priced  glue  always  the  best  for  all  purposes  ?     What  should  be 
the  appearance  of  good  glue  ?     How  should  it  act  in  cold  water  ?     When 
cut  with  a  knife?     When  broken?     Compare  the  amount  of  water 
absorbed  by  a  good  and  a  poor  glue.     How  should  a  glue  pot  be  con- 
structed ?     What  will  be  the  result  if  the  glue  pot  boils  dry  ?     Describe 
brushes  suitable  for  use  in  gluing.     What  kind  of  bark  makes  a  good 
brush  for  small  work?     How  is  it  prepared  for  use? 

66.  Describe  the  condition  of  glue  when  ready  for  use.     What  tool 
is  used  to  increase  the  strength  of  the  joint?     In  preparing  for  gluing, 
what  preparations  should  be  made  ?     How  should  wood  be  treated  for 
use  in  gluing  up  wood  of  a  greasy  nature  ? 

67.  Describe  the  manufacture  of  sandpaper.     What  is  used  for  sand  ? 
How  select  sandpaper  ? 

68.  For  what  kind  of  work  is  sandpaper  numbers  00  and  0  used? 
Numbers  \  and  1  ?     What  number  of  sandpaper  is  used  upon  general 
work  ?     What  will  be  the  result  if  sandpaper  is  kept  in  a  damp  place,  or 
becomes  wet  ?    What  should  be  the  size  of  the  piece  of  sandpaper  used 
upon  flat  surfaces,  and  for  general  work?     How  should  moldings  be 
sandpapered?     What  should  be  guarded  against  in  working  around 
sharp  corners  ?     Should  sandpaper  be  carried  with  or  across  the  grain  ? 
What  exceptions?     How  should  panel  work  be  sandpapered?     How 
should  panels  and  the  edges  of  stiles,  rails,  and  muntins  be  treated 
before  gluing  up?     How  should  sandpaper  be  used  upon  grain  which 
rubs  up  ?    How  are  panels  sometimes  treated  upon  fine  work  ?    Why  ? 


CHAPTER  VI 
WOOD  FINISHING 

69.  Filling.  —  (A.)  After  wood  has  been  smoothed  and 
made  ready  to  receive  the  finish,  it  is  prepared  by  filling, 
by  which  is  meant  the  process  of  filling  the  grain  so  that 
the  finish  itself  will  not  soak  in.  This,  if  well  done, 
makes  it  possible  to  do  as  good  a  job  of  finishing  with 
two  or  three  coats  as  could  be  done  on  some  kinds  of  wood 
with  from  five  to  eight  coats  without  the  filling.  Open- 
grained  woods,  such  as  oak,  ash,  etc.,  especially  need 
filling,  as  before  the  process  of  filling  was  discovered,  the 
open  grain,  or  cellular  part  of  the  wood,  had  to  be  filled 
by  shellac,  or  other  expensive  material,  before  there  was 
a  surface  suitable  to  receive  the  polish.  (B.)  There  are 
two  forms  of  filler  —  the  paste,  which  is  for  use  upon  open- 
grained  woods,  and  the  liquid,  which  is  adapted  to  filling 
the  pores  of  close-grained  woods  like  pine,  poplar,  cherry, 
etc.,  and  which  takes  the  place  of  one  coat  of  the  more  expen- 
sive shellac  or  other  finish.  The  paste  may  be  purchased 
ready-made,  and  colored  to  suit  the  taste,  or  it  may  be 
made  by  using  whiting,  silex,  or  corn  starch,  and  any  dry 
colors  necessary  to  secure  the  desired  stain.  The  ingre- 
dients should  be  well  ground,  and  thoroughly  mixed 
with  boiled  linseed  oil  to  a  thick  paste ;  to  this  should  be 
added  as  much  japan  drier  as  there  is  of  the  oil,  or  one 
quarter  as  much  as  there  is  of  the  paste.  The  whole  may 

128 


WOOD  FINISHING  129 

then  be  thinned  with  turpentine,  benzine,  or  gasolene 
to  a  consistency  which  will  allow  it  to  be  spread  easily, 
but  it  should  still  be  quite  thick. 

(C.)  Filler  need  not  be  spread  very  smoothly,  but  the 
surface  of  the  wood  must  be  covered,  and  the  filling 
thoroughly  worked  into  the  grain.  After  this  has  been 
done,  the  wood  should  be  allowed  to  stand  a  few  minutes, 
until  the  filler  has  become  dull  or  powdery,  and  seems  to 
stick  to  the  wood  if  rubbed  lightly  with  the  finger,, when 
it  should  be  rubbed  off  with  shavings  or  excelsior,  rubbing 
across  the  grain  wherever  possible.  Do  not  use  cloth  until 
cleaning  up  after  the  filler  is  all  off,  as  it  is  more  apt  to 
take  the  filling  out  of  the  grain  than  either  excelsior  or 
shavings.  The  corners  should  be  cleaned  out  with  a 
sharp  stick,  after  which  the  work  should  stand  for  several 
hours,  or  over  night,  before  the  finish  is  applied,  as  other- 
wise the  moisture  in  the  filler  may  cause  the  finish  to 
bubble.  Care  should  be  used  that  the  filling  does  not 
stand  too  long  before  rubbing  off,  or  it  will  be  very  difficult 
to  remove  it ;  hence,  it  is  best  not  to  spread  any  more  than 
can  be  cleaned  off  before  it  gets  too  hard.  Be  sure  that 
there  is  enough  filling  mixed  to  do  the  job  before  any  is 
applied,  as  it  is  difficult  to  match  colors. 

(D.)  Liquid  filling  should  be  spread  as  smoothly  and 
as  evenly  as  possible,  as  the  laps  will  be  apt  to  show 
through  the  finish  which  is  spread  over  it. 

70.  Staining  wood  (A.)  is  for  the  purpose  of  imparting 
some  other  than  the  natural  color  to  the  wood. 

(B.)  In  finishing  open-grained  woods,  a  stain  often  is 
used  which  will  color  the  wood  before  it  is  filled,  though 
upon  general  work,  it  is  the  custom  to  color  the  stain  only. 
KING'S  WOODWORK — 9 


130  .,       ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

This  does  not  make  the  work  all  of  one  color,  as  the  cells 
of  the  wood  will  retain  more  filling  than  will  the  harder 
part  of  the  grain.  By  this 'method  the  quarter  grain  may 
be  made  more  prominent.  If  an  open-grained  wood  is 
being  treated,  it  should  be  filled  after  being  stained. 
Close-grained  woods  are  ready  for  the  finish  as  soon  as  the 
stain  has  dried.  Stains  which  will  do  the  work  satisfac- 
torily may  be  made  of  various  chemicals.  There  are 
also  many  satisfactory  stains  upon  the  market,  which  can 
be  purchased  in  as  small  packages  as  desired,  offering  the 
student  a  large  range  of  colors  from  which  to  select. 

(C.)  Stains  for  close-grained  woods  may  be  made  by 
mixing  dry  colors  with  turpentine  or  benzine,  and  a  little 
boiled  oil  and  japan  to  bind  the  color.  These  stains  should 
be  applied  the  same  as  the  filler,  but  not  allowed  to  be- 
come so  hard  before  cleaning  off,  or  there  will  be  light  places 
rubbed  in  the  finish.  The  rubbing  or  cleaning  off  should 
be  done  with  a  soft  cloth,  care  being  used  that  there  are 
no  places  left  unclean3d,  especially  in  the  corners,  as  the 
finish  will  make  them  muddy. 

(D.)  A  very  good  old  cherry  stain  may  be  made  by  mix- 
ing Venetian  red  and  rose  pink  until  the  desired  shade  is 
produced. 

(E.)  Black  walnut  may  be  imitated  by  mixing  burnt 
umber  with  turpentine,  oil,  and  japan,  and  if  a  reddish 
tinge  is  desired,  a  little  burnt  sienna  may  be  added ;  this 
is  a  much  better  color  than  can  be  produced  by  umber 
alone.  Asphaltum,  thinned  to  the  desired  color,  makes  a 
good  walnut  stain. 

(F.)  Many  of  the  best  stains  are  mixed  with  water  as 
a  vehicle,  as  a  depth  and  brilliancy  of  color  may  be  ob- 


WOOD  FINISHING  131 

tained  which  is  impossible  with  any  stain  that  has  oil  in 
it.  The  objection  to  using  water  is  that  the  grain  of  the 
wood  is  lifted  by  the  moisture,  and  has  to  be  sanded  smooth 
before  it  can  be  finished.  Even  with  this  serious  objection, 
water  stains  are  used  extensively  upon  the  best  work. 

(G.)  The  rich  mahogany  stain  which  is  so  much  ad- 
mired may  be  made  by  mixing  the  same  colors  as  men- 
tioned in  (D.),  and  adding  carmine  until  the  desired  color 
is  obtained.  An  oil  stain  will  not  give  the  best  results, 
therefore  a  water  stain  should  be  used,  with  a  piece  of  gum 
arabic  about  twice  the  size  of  a  pea  dissolved  in  a  pint  or 
less  of  the  stain  for  a  binder,  or  about  the  same  proportion 
of  mucilage.  This  stain  should  be  cleaned  off  the  same  as 
the  oil  stain  above  described. 

(H.)  Cherry  may  be  darkened  by  applying  nitric  acid ; 
other  woods  may  be  darkened  or  aged  by  using  ammonia, 
potash,  or  a  strong  solution  of  tobacco  or  coffee.  Nitrate  of 
silver,  if  exposed  to  the  sunlight,  gives  a  beautiful  brown. 

(I.)  A  rich  brown  may  be  produced  by  using  equal  parts 
of  permanganate  of  potash  and  sulphate  of  magnesia,  dis- 
solved in  water ;  as  many  coats  as  desired  may  be  applied, 
sanding  with  number  00  sandpaper  between  the  coats. 
Better  results  are  obtained  if  the  stain  is  applied  hot. 

(J.)  A  beautiful  green  of  any  intensity  may  be  pro- 
duced by  mixing  verdigris  and  indigo  in  hot  vinegar,  and 
applying  hot.  Several  coats  may  be  necessary,  sanding 
between  the  coats.  The  indigo  should  be  used  cautiously, 
or  the  green  may  have  too  much  of  a  bluish  cast. 

(K.)  A  rich  brownish  black  may  be  obtained  by  using  a  so- 
lution of  logwood  (pulverized)  and  sulphate  of  iron,  applied 
in  coats  in  the  order  named.  Each  solution  should  be  hot. 


132  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

(L.)  Ebony  may  be  obtained  by  giving  any  close-grained 
wood,  cherry  preferred,  a  coat  of  sulphate  of  iron,  using 
a  weak  solution,  and  after  that  has  dried  and  been  sanded > 
a  coat  of  solution  of  nutgalls.  If  the  iron  is  too  strong,  a 
white  efflorescence  will  appear,  which  in  open-grained 
woods  will  bring  out  the  grain  in  strong  relief.  If  this  is 
objectionable,  the  grain  should  be  filled  with  a  black  filler. 

(M.)  Shellac  (see  71,  A.)  and  boneblack,  if  well  mixed, 
make  an  ebony  finish  which  is  often  used  upon  common 
work ;  black  varnish  sometimes  is  used  the  same  as  black 
shellac,  but  for  the  best  work  these  are  not  satisfactory, 
as  they  do  not  strike  into  the  wood  to  the  same  extent  as 
do  acid,  turpentine,  or  water  stain. 

71.  Shellac.  —  (A.)  This  is  a  product  of  Africa  and 
South  America.  It  is  the  combination  of  a  secretion  of 
the  female  of  a  small  insect  and  the  sap  of  a  tree,  in  the 
bark  of  which  the  insect  deposits  its  eggs.  The  gum  thus 
formed  is  gathered,  and  after  passing  through  various  re- 
fining processes  becomes  the  shellac  known  to  commerce. 
It  is  cut  or  dissolved  by  either  wood  or  grain  alcohol, 
when  it  is  ready  for  use.  Some  of  the  best  furniture  is 
finished  with  shellac,  and  unless  continuously  exposed  to 
moisture  or  hard  usage,  the  finish  is  practically  everlasting. 

(B.)  Shellac  finish  does  not  crack  as  varnish  is  liable 
to,  neither  does  its  luster  dim  by  exposure  to  the  various 
gases  present  in  every  house,  which  are  due  to  domestic 
causes,  though  most  varnishes  will  do  this  after  some  years. 

Upon  ordinary  work,  two  coats  of  shellac  may  be  satis- 
factory, though  three  coats  generally  will  improve  the 
work  sufficiently  to  make  it  advisable  to  apply  the  extra 
coat.  Shellac  should  not  be  laid  in  too  thick  coats,  or  it 


WOOD  FINISHING  133 

will  pit  badly  in  drying,  and  make  work  in  rubbing  to  a 
surface,  which  can  be  avoided  if  moderately  thin  coats  are 
spread,  though  perhaps  the  greatest  advantage  in  laying 
thin  coats  is  that  the  wood  may  be  covered  more  evenly, 
and  there  will  be  fewer  runs  and  laps  visible.  Shellac 
should  always  be  laid  with  quick  strokes,  never  working 
over  a  place  already  covered  ;  for  this  work,  use  a  brush  as 
large  as  possible  to  do  the  work  without  clumsiness. 

(C.)  In  applying  shellac  finish,  one  coat  is  laid  upon  the 
other,  each  coat  being  rubbed  down  with  number  00  sand- 
paper, or  with  pulverized  pumice  stone  before  the  next 
coat  is  spread.  For  this  purpose,  a  sheet  of  sandpaper 
should  be  cut  into  eighths,  and  one  of  these  pieces  folded 
in  the  center  of  its  long  dimension,  and  held  in  the  hand 
as  shown  in  Fig.  99,  which  keeps  its  edges  from  scratching 
the  surface.  If  it  is  desired  to  rub  the  shellac  down  to  a 
surface  with  pumice  stone,  it  should  be  applied  with  hair- 
cloth, or  with  harness  maker's  felt,  moistened  with  oil  or 
water;  but  for  ordinary  work,  sandpaper  will  give  satis- 
faction, and  as  it  is  more  convenient,  it  is  much  used. 

If  the  best  results  are  desired,  the  last  coat  should  be 
rubbed  with  pumice  stone  and  sweet  oil,  applied  as  above, 
though  boiled  cil  is  satisfactory;  and  for  ordinary  work, 
number  00  sandpaper  is  used,  though  it  is  liable  to  show 
scratches.  After  the  rubbing  is  done,  the  oil  should  be 
wiped  off  with  a  soft  rag,  and  very  fine  rotten  stone  dusted 
on  and  polished  with  a  clean, -soft  cloth.  Many  finishers 
use  the  palm  of  the  hand  in  putting  on  the  finishing  touches. 
If  a  dead,  or  mat,  finish  is  desired,  the  final  rubbing  should 
be  done  with  water,  used  sparingly,  as  oil  imparts  a  high 
gloss,  if  the  work  is  well  done. 


134  ELEMENTS  OF  WOODWORK 

(D.)  Care  should  be  used  on  any  kind  of  work  upon 
which  waste  or  oily  rags  are  used ;  these  rags  should  be 
gathered  and  burned  unless  they  are  wanted  again  soon, 
in  which  case  they  may  be  spread  out  separately;  since, 
if  crushed  together  and  thrown,  as  they  often  are,  into 


FIG.  99.  —  METHOD  OF  GRASPING   SANDPAPER  IN    RUBBING   DOWN  SHELLAC 

FINISH. 

a  waste  box,  they  furnish  the  necessary  conditions  for  a 
case  of  spontaneous  combustion. 

(E.)  The  gloss  upon  dried  shellac  and  varnishes  of  all 
kinds  is  very  showy,  and  lacks  the  finish  and  the  texture  of 
a  rubbed  finish.  Moreover,  any  dust  settling  upon  moist 
varnish  is  held,  giving  the  surface  an  effect  of  countless 
minute  points;  rubbing  removes  these,  and  gives  the 
smooth,  glossy  surface  desired  upon  most  work.  Upon 


WOOD  FINISHING  135 

the  most  artistic  furniture,  a  gloss,  which  is  the  result  of 
a  built-up  polish,  is  not  considered  good  taste ;  the  use  of 
muscle  and  a  very  little  oil,  applied  at  intervals  during  a 
term  of  years,  gives  a  polish  and  a  beauty  which  can  be 
obtained  by  no  other  method,  and  it  is  to  attain  this  ideal 
in  a  few  days  that  so  many  varieties  of  finish  exist. 

(F.)  In  rubbing,  be  sure  that  the  corners  are  not  rubbed 
through,  as  the  pressure  will  naturally  be  more  upon  the 
corners  than  upon  a  broad  surface.  This  may  be  avoided  by 
using  care  that  the  pressure  is  not  applied  so  as  to  bear 
on  the  corner ;  grasp  the  rubbing  material  in  such  a  way 
that  no  loose  edges  will  be  beyond  control,  as  in  Fig.  99, 
or  the  finish  may  be  badly  scratched;  this  applies  es- 
pecially to  the  corners.  The  rubbing  should  always  be 
in  the  direction  parallel  with  the  grain  of  the  wood. 

(G.)  If  the  finish  is  rubbed  through  to  the  wood,  it 
may  be  repolished  or  patched  by  sandpapering  the  bare 
wood  with  fine  sandpaper,  and  staining  it  to  bring  it  to 
the  same  condition  as  the  rest  of  the  wood  before  the  first 
coat  of  finish  was  applied.  Using  the  same  finishing 
material  as  the  finish  of  the  rest  of  the  piece,  lay  a  very 
thin  coat,  a  little  larger  than  the  place  to  be  patched,  be- 
ing careful  to  avoid  a  ridge  at  the  edge  of  the  patch.  This 
ridge  may  be  drawn  out  by  a  small  camel' s-hair  brush,  and 
the  patch  left  until  thoroughly  dried ;  then  apply  another 
patch  a  little  larger  than  the  first  one,  treating  the  edge 
as  in  the  first  patch.  Continue  this  until  the  finish  is  built 
up  to  the  same  thickness  as  that  of  which  it  is  a  part. 
This  should  be  rubbed  very  carefully  to  bring  it  to  the 
same  finish  as  the  rest  of  the  surface,  using  care  not  to 
rub  through  the  old  finish  at  the  edge  of  the  patch.  As  it 


136  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

is  the  corners  which  are  most  liable  to  be  rubbed  through, 
this  process  will  not  generally  be  difficult  of  application ; 
all  that  is  necessary  to  secure  a  successful  patch  is  to  use 
care  at  each  step,  and  not  to  hurry  the  drying  of  the 
different  patches. 

72.  Wax  finishing  is  a  good  method  of  finishing  any 
kind  of  hard  or  dark-colored  wood ;  (A.)  it  does  not  give 
as  satisfactory  results,  however,  as  do  some  other  methods 
of  finishing,  upon  soft  or  light-colored  wood.  There  are 
a  number  of  different  kinds  of  wax  finishes  which  can  be 
purchased  in  almost  any  desired  quantity,  (B.)  but  an 
economical  and  satisfactory  wax  finish  may  be  made  by 
dissolving  as  much  pulverized  resin  as  may  be  picked  up  on 
a  cent  in  a  half  pint  of  turpentine  or  gasolene  heated  in 
a  water  or  steam  double  vessel.  After  this  is  clear,  cut 
up  and  add  a  piece  of  beeswax  as  large  as  a  thimble,  and 
allow  the  finish  to  simmer  slowly,  until  it  is  clear,  when  it 
is  ready  for  use.  This  may  be  mixed  in  larger  quantities 
by  using  the  same  proportions.  If  placed  in  an  air-tight 
vessel,  it  will  keep  indefinitely. 

(C.)  This  finish  should  be  applied  hot,  with  a  brush,  as 
smoothly  and  as  evenly  as  possible,  and  allowed  to  stand 
until  it  has  become  quite  hard,  when  it  should  be  polished 
with  a  soft  rag  which  is  free  from  lint. ,  As  many  coats  as 
desired  may  be  applied,  each  coat  being  treated  in  the 
same  way,  and  adding  to  the  beauty  of  the  finish.  Another 
method  of  applying  this  finish,  and  which  gives  satisfac- 
tory results  upon  broad  surfaces,  is  to  make  a  pad  of  a  rag, 
and  rub  the  wax  on  the  wood,  rubbing  until  it  is  dry. 
This  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  it  is  to  use  a  brush  upon 
work  where  there  are  many  corners  to  finish  around. 


WOOD  FINISHING  137 

One  of  the  advantages  of  this  wax  finish  is  that  it  may 
be  brightened  if  it  becomes  dim  by  going  over  it  with  a 
soft  cloth,  or  it  may  be  renewed  and  improved  by  another 
coat  at  slight  expense  and  little  trouble. 

This  is  also  a  satisfactory  method  of  finishing  a  dark  floor 
made  of  a  wood  which  will  not  splinter  when  it  is  rubbed. 

73.  (A.)  Oil  finish  is  perhaps  the  most  simple  way  to 
finish  a  piece  of  furniture ;    it  is  best  adapted  to  hard, 
dark  woods.     The  material  is  made  by  mixing  a  quarter 
of  a  pint  of  turpentine  with  seven  eighths  of  a  quart  of 
boiled  linseed  oil.     It  should  be  spread  evenly  over  the 
surface  to  be  finished,  and  should  stand  until  as  much  of  it 
as  will,  has  soaked  into  the  wood,  when  the  surface  should 
be  brought  to  a  finish  by  rubbing.    This  will  require  muscle, 
as  the  finish  should  stand  about  ten  hours,  during  which 
time  a  thin  film  or  skin  will  form,  which  must  be  removed 
by  rubbing.     Only  a  soft  rag,  free  from  lint,  should  be 
used,  and  be  sure  that  the  folds  of  the  cloth  do  not  leave 
their  marks  upon  the  surface.     Rub  with  the  grain. 

(B.)  Oil  finish  is  a  very  durable  finish,  easily  taken 
care  of,  and  is  used  to  some  extent  in  finishing  the  most 
artistic  furniture,  being  especially  adapted  to  finishing 
mahogany.  It  has  a  character  peculiarly  its  own,  and 
exposure  to  moisture  and  heat  affects  it  less  than  almost 
any  other  form  of  finish.  As  it  should  be  occasionally 
oiled,  it  improves  with  age  and  care.  This  finish  was  used 
in  olden  times,  and  the  care  of  generations  gives  a  polish 
attainable  by  no  other  method. 

74.  Varnish  forms  the  finish  which  is  used  most  com- 
monly upon  all  grades  and  kinds  of  work.     (A.)    The 
different  grades  are  made  of  various  vegetable  gums  and 


138  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

resins,  cut  in  turpentine  and  mixed  with  boiled  oil.  A 
cheap  grade  of  varnish  or  hard  oil  may  be  made  by  boiling 
resin,  turpentine,  and  boiled  oil  together.  Other  gums 
may  be  treated  the  same  way ;  the  varnish  used  upon  the 
best  work,  for  instance,  is  made  from  copal,  a  vegetable 
product  of  the  tropics.  By  a  very  careful  process  of  boil- 
ing, straining,  and  ripening,  extending  over  months, 
copal  is  made  into  the  product  which  is  used  so  extensively 
upon  furniture  finishing,  carriages,  etc. 

(B.)  Varnish  should  be  applied  in  a  room  heated  to 
about  80°  F.,  the  dust  should  be  laid  by  sprinkling,  and 
there  should  be  no  drafts  of  air,  nor  flies  or  other  insects 
to  light  upon  it,  if  the  best  results  are  desired. 

(C.)  In  flowing  varnish,  instead  of  laying  a  thin  coat 
as  in  shellac,  a  thick  coat  should  be  applied.  This  may  be 
done  by  using  a  thick,  heavy  brush ;  some  prefer  a  heavy, 
round  brush,  and  others  think  they  can  obtain  the  best 
results  from  a  broad,  flat  brush.  The  finer  the  hairs,  the 
better  the  results  obtained. 

The  brush  must  be  taken  up  full  of  varnish,  enough  to 
cover  the  entire  surface,  if  possible,  and  spread  or  flowed 
very  quickly.  The  brush  should  then  be  wiped  out  in 
the  varnish  pot.  With  the  brush  thus  dried,  go  over  the 
surface,  picking  up  all  that  the  brush  will  absorb ;  wipe 
this  out  in  the  pot,  and  repeat  the  operation  until  nothing 
is  left  but  a  thin  film  of  varnish.  If  this  is  done  properly, 
it  will  prevent  all  runs  and  streaks  which  result  from  un- 
skillful workmanship. 

When  this  coat  is  thoroughly  dried,  rub  with  number  00 
sandpaper,  pulverized  pumice  stone,  or  a  smooth  block  of 
pumice  stone  (carriage  painter's  method),  and  repeat  the 


WOOD  FINISHING  139 

process  until  the  desired  body  of  varnish  is  obtained.  Rub 
down  last  coat  with  oil  and  polish.  Allow  as  much  time 
between  last  coats  as  possible,  as  the  harder  the  varnish 
is,  the  better  and  more  durable  the  work  will  be  when 
completed. 

75.  Polishing. -- This  term  applies  to  the  process  by 
which  a  polish  is  built  up  by  rubbing,  or  "  ragging  "  as 
workmen  sometimes  call  it.  The  piece  to  be  polished 
should  receive  two  or  three  coats  of  shellac  or  varnish, 
which  should  be  rubbed  down  to  a  surface,  when  it  is 
ready  for  the  polish. 

To  make  a  pad  of  convenient  size  for  polishing,  fold  a 
piece  of  old,  soft  cloth,  free  from  lint,  and  fill  it  with  cot- 
ton waste;  or  the  end  of  a  roll  of  cloth  may  be  covered 
by  the  piece  which  is  to  do  the  actual  polishing.  Provide 
a  cup  of  moderately  thin  shellac  and  another  of  boiled  oil, 
of  which  about  one  quarter  is  turpentine  ;  or  better,  a  cup 
of  sweet  oil  without  turpentine.  Dip  the  pad  into  the 
oil  and  allow  it  to  soak  in  completely,  then  do  the  same 
with  the  shellac.  Now  dip  the  pad  again  into  the  shellac, 
and  with  the  finger  put  on  a  single  drop  of  oil,  and  rup 
lightly  upon  the  work,  with  a  circular  motion,  or  if  the 
work  is  large  enough,  the  stroke  may  be  longer.  If  the 
work  is  done  with  a  straight  stroke,  do  not  stop  at  the  end 
of  the  stroke,  as  the  instant  between  the  end  of  one  stroke 
and  the  beginning  of  the  return  may  be  enough  to  allow  the 
shellac  to  stick  and  make  a  hole  in  the  surface,  which  will 
be  difficult  to  repair ;  begin  and  end  the  stroke  with  a  sweep- 
ing motion.  The  idea  of  this  method  of  polishing  is  to  bring 
the  shellac  to  a  polish,  using  as  little  oil  as  possible  for  lubri- 
cating, as  the  less  oil  used,  the  better  will  be  the  polish. 


140  ELEMENTS   OF  WOODWORK 

76.  Brushes.  —  (A.)  If  brushes  are  to  be  used  for  stain 
or  for  filling,  a  cheap  brush  of  any  suitable  size  will  do, 
a  flat  brush  being  preferred  upon  ordinary  work.  For 
shellac  and  varnish,  the  finer  the  brush,  the  better  the 
results  usually  obtained.  Ordinarily  it  is  the  best  practice 
to  use  as  large  a  brush  as  the  nature  of  the  work  will  per- 
mit, as  it  will  hold  more,  and  cover  more  surface,  than  a 
smaller  brush,  and  have  fewer  "  laps."  Chisel-pointed, 
flat  brushes,  from  \\"  to  2i"  in  width,  will  be  found  satis- 
factory for  the  work  of  schools  and  amateurs,  but  upon 
professional  work,  brushes  from  3i"  to  5"  often  are  used. 

(B.)  The  care  of  the  brushes  is  an  important  part  of 
the  work  of  those  who  use  them,  as  neglect  or  carelessness 
may  destroy  a  valuable  brush  overnight.  Unless  a  brush 
is  going  to  be  used  again  the  next  day,  it  is  always  best  to 
clean  it  thoroughly.  If  a  stain,  filling,  paint,  or  varnish 
brush,  use  gasolene  or  turpentine,  but  if  a  shellac  brush, 
use  wood  alcohol,  cleaning  off  all  the  small  particles.  To 
obtain  the  best  results,  all  brushes"  should  be  washed  in 
hot,  soapy  water,  and  afterward  rinsed  in  clean  water ;  in 
general,  however,  this  latter  precaution  may  be  dispensed 
with,  unless  the  brushes  are  to  be  laid  away  indefinitely. 
Unless  the  above  precautions  have  been  taken,  care  should 
be  taken  that  shellac  and  varnish  brushes  are  not  changed 
from  one  to  the  other.  Never  allow  a  brush  to  stand  on  its 
side  for  more  than  a  few  minutes  at  a  time,  as  a  wrong  direc- 
tion is  easily  given  the  bristles,  and  the  brushes  may  be 
quickly  destroyed  by  a  little  carelessness  or  negligence. 

Old  brushes,  well  broken  in  and  cared  for,  will  give  better 
results  than  new  brushes  ;  therefore  they  should  be  treated 
with  every  possible  consideration. 


WOOD  FINISHING  141 

Varnish  brushes  often  are  left  in  the  varnish  pot,  and  if 
they  are  hung  up  so  that  they  will  not  rest  upon  their 
bristles,  this  is  the  best  way  to  keep  them  when  they  are 
in  almost  constant  daily  use. 


SUGGESTIVE  EXERCISES 

69.  Why  is  wood  filler  used?    Describe  paste  filler.     Describe  the 
process  of  spreading  filler  and  of  rubbing  it  off.     Describe  liquid  filler 
and  the  process  of  spreading  it. 

70.  Why  do  we  stain  wood?     What  is  the  difference  in  the  results 
of  staining  and  filling  and  of  filling  alone  ?     How  may  stains  for  open- 
grained  woods  be  mixed  and  used  ?     Describe  a  simple  cherry  or  ma- 
hogany stain.     Describe  black  walnut  stain.     What  is  the  objection  to 
a  water  stain?    How  may  a  rich  mahogany  stain  be  mixed?     How 
may  woods  be  darkened?     Describe  the  composition  of  a  rich  brown 
stain ;  of  a  good  green  stain ;  of  a  brownish  black.     Describe  ebonizing. 
For  what  purposes  are  shellac  and  lampblack  and  black  varnish  used  ? 

71.  Of  what  does  shellac  finish  consist  ?     What  is  the  source  of  supply 
of  shellac?     Compare  shellac  and  copal  varnish.     Demonstrate  the 
application  of  shellac.     Are  thin  or  thick  coats  of  shellac  the  better? 
Why  is  rubbing  down  necessary  ?     Demonstrate.     What  precautions 
should  be  taken  in  regard  to  oily  rags?     Why?    What  should    be 
guarded  against  in  rubbing?  What  is  a  convenient  size  for  a  piece  of 
sandpaper  ?     Describe  and  demonstrate  patching. 

72.  Describe  the  preparation  of  wax  finish.     Describe  and  demon- 
strate two  methods  of  applying  wax  finish. 

73.  Describe  oil  finish  and  its  application.     Describe  its  qualities. 

74.  Describe  briefly  the  manufacture  of  varnish.     Describe  ideal  con- 
ditions for  flowing  varnish.     Describe  and  demonstrate  the  method  of 
flowing  varnish. 

75.  Describe  and  demonstrate  the  process  of  polishing. 

76.  Describe  the  kinds  of  brushes  suitable  for  different  kinds  of  work. 
How  should  brushes  be  cleaned  ?    What  should  be  the  general  treat- 
ment of  a  brush  ?     How  may  varnish  brushes  be  kept  ready  for  use  ? 


INDEX 


Age  of  tree,  2. 

Alburnum,  see  Sap  wood. 

Annual   layer,    formation  of,    1,  2,  3; 

covering    over    breaks,    9,     10 ;    in 

quarter-sawed  lumber,  23  ;  shrinking 

around,  48. 

Apple  wood,  description  of,  29. 
Arkansas  stone,  106. 
Ash,  description  of,  28. 
Auger,  cross-handled,  91. 
Auger  bit,  described,  91 ;    filing  of,  92, 

93. 
Axe,  hand,  described,  66. 

Backsaw,  described,  69. 

Balsam  fir,  illustrated,  43. 

Band  saw,  19. 

Bark,  of  tree  trunk,  4,  5,  6. 

Basswood  (or  linden) ,  description  of,  29. 

Bast,  of  tree  trunk,  4,  5,  6. 

Bastard  sawing,  22. 

Beech,  description  of,  30,  31. 

Bell-faced  hammer,  described,  65. 

Benches,  types  of,  described,  57-59. 

Bevel,  described,  62. 

Bill  stuff,  sawing  of,  22. 

Birch,  description  of,  30,  32. 

Bird's-eye  maple,  description  of,  36. 

Bitbrace,  or  stock,  described,  93  ; 
ratchet,  described,  94. 

Bits,  described,  90. 

Black  walnut,  see  Walnut. 

Black  walnut  stain,  130. 

Blemishes,  in  grading  lumber,  23,  24. 

Blind  nailing,  described,  66. 

Block  plane,  description  and  use  of,  84. 

Boards,  sawing  of,  to  dimension,  20 ; 
surveying  or  estimating  of,  25  ;  meas- 
uring of,  26;  for  siding,  28 ;  piling  of, 
48,  49. 

Brushes,  for  gluing,  120 ;  for  staining 
and  filling,  140. 


Burnisher,  use  of,  in  sharpening  scraper, 
97-100. 

Butternut  (or  white  walnut),  descrip- 
tion of,  32. 

Buttonwood,  see  Sycamore. 

Cable,  hauling  logs  by,  15. 

Calipers,  described,  95. 

Cam,  of  plane,  73,  75. 

Cambium,  of  tree  trunk,  4,  5,  6. 

Canoe  birch,  32. 

Cap  iron,  of  plane,  use  of,  74. 

Cap  screw,  of  plane,  use  of,  73,  75. 

Carborundum,  as  grindstone,  106 ;  as 
oilstone,  107. 

Carpenter's  bench,  57,  58. 

Cedar,  description  of,  32. 

Cellular  grain  of  wood,  2. 

Center  bit,  described,  92. 

Checking,  or  cracking,  of  lumber,  6,  8. 

Cherry,  description  of,  32  ;  stain,  130  ; 
how  to  darken,  131. 

Chestnut,  description  of,  33. 

Chisels,  described,  88. 

Circular  saw,  19,  20. 

Claw  hammer,  described,  64. 

Clefts,  or  splits,  9. 

Close-grained  woods,  filling  of,  128; 
staining  of,  130. 

Coarse-grained  lumber,  8. 

Color  of  wood,  2,  25. 

Comb-grained  lumber,  23. 

Common  boards,  grading  of,  26 ;  meas- 
uring of,  26. 

Compass  (or  keyhole)  saw,  described, 
68;  filing  of,  113. 

Compasses,  or  dividers,  described,  95. 

Coniferous  trees,  2,  3. 

Corundum,  as  grindstone,  106 ;  as 
oilstone,  107. 

Cross-grained  lumber,  8. 

Culls,  24. 


143 


144 


INDEX 


Cup  shakes,  7,  8. 

Cutting-off   saw,  described,  68 ;    filing 

of,  111. 
Cypress,  description  of,  33. 

Decay  of  tree,  how  prevented,  25. 
Deciduous  trees,  2. 
Defects  in  lumber,  7-10. 
Dimension  timber,  sawing  of,  20,  22. 
Discolorations  in  lumber,  9,  24. 
Dividers,  see  Compasses. 
Drawshave,  described,  90. 
Duramen,  see  Heartwood. 

Ebony  stain,  132. 

Edge,  squaring  an,  with  try-square,  60, 

61. 

Edges,  square  and  beveled,  97. 
Elm,  description  of,  34. 
Emery,  as  grindstone,  106  ;  as  oilstone, 

107. 
Emery  wheel,  use  of,  in  sharpening  a 

plane,  77. 

Endogenous  trees,  1. 
Estimating  lumber,  25. 
Exogenous  trees,  1. 
Extension  bit,  described,  92. 

Files,  description  and  use  of,  1  OS- 
US. 

Filler,  how  to  make,  128 ;  how  to 
spread,  129. 

Fine-grained  lumber,  8. 

Finishing  woods,  128-141. 

Flooring,  best  grades  of,  23,  28. 

Framing,  lumber  for,  27,  28,  50. 

Framing  square,  62. 

Gauge,  description  and  use  of,  63,  64. 

German  bit,  described,  92. 

Glue,  different  kinds  of,  118;    testing 

of,  119;   how  to  use,  120-122. 
Gouges,  described,  90. 
Grading  of  lumber,  23. 
Grain  of  woods,  cause  of,    1,    2,    6,  7 ; 

kinds  of,  8.     See  also  Close-grained, 

etc. 
Grindstone,    use    of,    in    sharpening   a 

plane,  77;    described,  105. 
Ground  glue,  118. 
Gum  (sweet  gum),  description  of,  34. 


Hammer,  described,  63. 
Handscrews,  use  of,  103-105,  12,2. 
Hard  wood,  cause  of,  1,  2. 
Hatchet,  described,  66. 
Hemlock,  description  of,  35. 
Heart  shakes,  7,  8. 
Heartwood,  formation  of,  3,  4,  5. 
Hickory,  description  of,  35. 

Insects,  injurious  to  trees,  10,  25. 
Inside  finish,  lumber  for,  28. 

Jack  plane,  described,  81 ;    use  of,  86- 

88. 

Jointer,  described,  82. 
Jointing  a  saw,  109. 
Joists  or  scantling,  surveying  of,  26. 

Keyhole  saw,  see  Compass  saw. 
Kiln,    filling    a,    53 ;     length    of    time 

lumber  should  be  left  in,  54. 
Kiln-dried  lumber,  28,  50-54. 
Kilns,    moist   air,    50 ;    induced   draft, 

52. 
Knife  blades,  described,  72. 

Linden,  see  Basswood. 

Liquid  filler,  128. 

Locust,  description  of,  35. 

Logging,  12-19. 

Lumber,  unseasoned,  3 ;  checking, 
or  cracking  of,  6 ;  defects  in,  7,  8; 
grain  of,  1,  2,  6,  7,  8;  when  to  cut, 
10  ;  manufacture  of,  12-23  ;  grading 
of,  23,  24;  testing  of,  24,  25;  sur- 
veying or  estimating  of,  25-27 ; 
piling  of,  45—49  ;  weather-dried,  49  ; 
kiln-dried,  50-54.  See  also  special 
subjects. 

Lumbering,  processes  of,  12. 

Mahogany,  description  of,  36  ;   sanding 

of,  126;   stain,  131. 
Mallets,  described,  67. 
Manual-training  bench,  57,  58. 
Maple,  description  of,  35  ;  sugar  maple, 

illustrated,  31. 
Medullary  rays,  4,  5,  6  ;   sawing  woods 

having,  22. 

Moist  air,  or  natural  draft,  kilns,  50. 
Moisture,  in  lumber,  4. 


INDEX 


145 


Moldings,  sandpapering  of,  125. 
Monkey  wrench,  103. 

Nail    set,  use  of,    66,   102 ;    burnisher 

made  from,  99. 
Nailing,  described,  65,  66. 
Nippers,  described,  95. 

Oak,  tree  trunk,  section  of,  5  ;  plain  and 
quartered,  5 ;  description  of,  36. 

Odor  of  wood,  2,  25. 

Oil  finish,  137. 

Oilstones,  artificial,  use  of,  107. 

Open-grained  woods,  filling  of,  128; 
staining  of,  129. 

"Out  of  wind,"  60,  61. 

Outside  finish,  lumber  for,  27,  28. 

Panel  work,  sandpapering,  126. 

Paper  birch,  32. 

Paste  filler,  128. 

Piling  of  lumber,  45-49. 

Pine,  yellow,  section  of,  2 ;  description 

of  different  varieties  of,  36. 
Pine  logs,  load  of  white,  14. 
Pith,  of  tree  trunk,  4,  5. 
Plain  sawing,  22. 
Plane,  adjusting  mechanism  of,  73-75  ; 

other  parts  of,  75,  76 ;   sharpening  a", 

76-81. 

Planes,  description  and  use  of,  72-88. 
Pliers,  described,  95. 
Polishing,  139. 
Poplar  (or  whitewood),  description  of, 

40. 

Position,  in  using  tools,  85. 
Preserving  wood,  55. 
Prices,  sliding  scale  of,  26. 

Quarter-sawed  lumber,  22,  23,  48. 

Ratchet  bitbrace,  described,  94. 
Ratchet  screwdrivers,  described,  94. 
Redwood,  description  of,  40. 
Rift-sawed  lumber,  23. 
Ripsaw,  described,  67;   filing  of,  112. 
Rule,  use  of,  in  setting  gauge,  63. 
Rules,  fourfold  and  zigzag,  described,  59. 

Sandpaper,  testing  of,  122 ;  how  to 
use,  123-127.  See  also  Finishing. 

KING'S  WOODWORK  — 10 


Sap,  motion  of,  3  ;  allowed,  in  grading 
lumber,  23. 

Sap  wood,  formation  of,  3,  4,  5. 

Saw  filing,  described,  109-113. 

Saw  handle,  reset,  72. 

Saw  set,  hand  and  anvil,  described,  110. 

Sawing  of  lumber,  12,  18-23. 

Sawmills,  types  of,  18. 

Saws,  description  and  use  of,  67-72. 

Scale  used  in  measuring  lumber,  26,  27. 

Scraper,  description  of,  96  ;  sharpening 
of,  97-102. 

Scratch  plane,  for  use  in  gluing,  121. 

Screwdriver,  described,  94. 

Shellac,  use  of,  132-136. 

Shingles,  quality  of,  28. 

Shrinking  of  lumber,  quarter-sawed, 
23,  48. 

Silver  grain,  5,  6,  22. 

Skidways,  use  of,  13-17. 

Slash  sawing,  22. 

Slip  stones,  use  of,  107. 

Smoothing  plane,  described,  82. 

Soft  wood,  cause  of,  1,  2. 

Spokeshave,  described,  90. 

Spruce,  cutting  of,  13,  14  (figs.  5,  6) ; 
description  of,  40. 

Staining  wood,  129-132. 

Star  shakes,  7,  8,  48. 

Steaming  wood,  55. 

Steel,  or  framing,  square,  62. 

Stock,  see  Bitbrace. 

Straight-grained  lumber,  8. 

Stumpage,  explanation  of,  13. 

Sugar  maple  forest,  31. 

Surveying  of  lumber,  25. 

Sycamore  (or  button  wood),  descrip- 
tion of,  42. 

Tacking,  described,  65. 

Testing  of  lumber,  24. 

Timbers  to  be  buried,  quality  of,  28. 

Toenailing,  described,  65. 

Tools,  how  to  purchase,  57 ;  descrip- 
tion and  use  of,  57-108. 

Travoy  road,  13,  15. 

Tree  trunk,  tissues  of,  4. 

Trees,  kinds  of,  used  for  lumber,  1,2; 
annual  layer  of,  1;  grain  of,  1,  2,  6, 
7,  8;  age  of,  2;  defects  in,  8-10; 
when  to  cut,  10;  felling  of,  12-15; 


146 


INDEX 


decay  of,  25.  See  also  special  sub- 
jects. 

Try-square,  description  and  use  of, 
59-62,  71. 

Twist  drill,  described,  92. 

Varnish,  137. 

Vertical-grained  lumber,  23. 
Vises,  on  benches,  59. 

Walnut,     black,     description    of,     42 ; 

white,  see  Butternut. 
Walnut  stain,  black,  130. 
Warping  of  lumber,  48. 
Washita  stone,  106. 
Waste,  care  in  use  of,  134. 
Wax  finishing,  136. 


Ways,  permanent  lumber,  45. 

Weather-dried  lumber,  12,  28,  49. 

Whetstones,  description  and  use  of, 
106. 

Whetting  and  grinding  of  plane,  77-80. 

Whitewood,  see  Poplar. 

Wind  shakes,  or  cup  shakes,  7,  8. 

Winding  sticks,  61. 

Wood,  growth  of,  1-11  ;  grain  of,  1,2; 
color  of,  2,  4 ;  odor  of,  2  ;  soft  and 
hard,  1,  2;  qualities  of,  27-29; 
varieties  of,  29-42 ;  steaming,  55 ; 
preserving,  55  ;  filling  grain  of,  128  ; 
staining,  129.  See  also  special  sub- 
jects. 

Wrenches,  described,  103. 


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